Cape Town Water Crisis: a Complex Problem Aggravated by Climate Change, Non-native species, and Colonial Structures
Kyle Moodley
Key words: Cape Town, Catchments, Water Crisis, Fynbos Biome, Ecological Restoration
Key words: Cape Town, Catchments, Water Crisis, Fynbos Biome, Ecological Restoration
Summary
The water crisis in Cape Town, South Africa began in 2015 and foresaw a 3 year drought, the worst in the city’s history. Since 1933, there has been a consistent decrease in the annual precipitation of the Western Cape Province (Environmental and Energy Study Institute, 2018). With decreasing supplies of fresh water, the city fears it may reach “Day Zero”. This is predicted to be the day the city runs out of water entirely and will have to declare a state of emergency. This day was originally set to be reached by May 2018, but with water rationing has been pushed to 2019 (Figure 1). The current water crisis in Cape Town can be defined as a lack of fresh drinking water fueled by accelerating drought conditions in the Cape Peninsula. Beyond its human centric focus, the water crisis has the potential to affect the biodiversity of the Cape Floral Region and endanger ~8500 native fynbos plant species. Climate change, a rapidly urbanizing city in a water-scarce region, conflicting leadership, and colonial structures are the factors that have led Cape Town’s water crisis.
Ecological GENEALOGY
The Cape Peninsula in South Africa is a biodiversity hotspot and one of the most floristically biodiverse section of Earth. Near Cape Town, the peninsula is home to the Cape Floral region (CPR) (Figure 2). The CPR is a Mediterranean-type ecosystem that contains over 9000 species of vascular plants, 68% of which are endemic (West et al., 2012). The CPR is a primarily fynbos biome. Fynbos are dry, fire prone shrubs that can either have deep (proteoid) or shallow (ericoid) root systems. The CPR also has 14 taxonomic groups of invertebrates and 112 endemic fauna species, which gives it one of the greatest biodiversity concentration in the world. The mild climate of this ecosystem most likely maintained low extinction rates and has allowed for taxonomic radiation, giving rise to this biodiversity hotspot (West et al., 2012). These fynbos biomes occur around naturally around catchments, where water is more easily available. They help prevent erosion of the mountain slopes and direct runoff.
A natural catchment is a part of the landscape that collects rain water (WaterNSW, N.D.). These catchments can be located high above sea level in mountain ranges (Figure 3). These natural reservoirs, once full, produce runoff. This runoff can feed into other catchments, streams, rivers, and eventually find their way to the ocean. Water can also seep through the catchment and accumulate as ground water, often becoming purified as it passes through porous rocks. |
Cape Town’s fresh drinking water is provided by these catchment areas residing in the fynbos mountain areas (Otto et al., 2018). The catchments include the mountain ranges of Hottentots Holland, Riviersonderend, Wemmershoek, Wellington, and Porterville (Figure 3). These mountain ranges are located east and north-east of the city. Table Mountain, which is prominent near Capetown, is also a catchment, but today it only accounts for 1% of Cape Town’s fresh drinking water. However the Cape Peninsula and Cape Town specifically was first settled because of the vast amounts of fresh drinking water it produced. The Khoiloi Pastoralists people, the San people, and the Khoekhow settled in this area approximately 2000 years ago and called it Camissa “the place of sweet waters” because of the freshwater springs and rivers that flowed years round (Lindow, 2018 & Mountain, 2003).
This natural phenomenon also attracted Dutch settlers. Dutch sailors working for the Dutch East India Company wanted to establish a supply station for ships crossing the ocean from India to Europe. They built large stone aqueducts to redirect water flowing from catchments to ports. These stations lead to the permanent settlement of the Cape Peninsula in 1652 by Europeans. The European settlers wiped out most of the Indigenous population, committing acts of genocide, spreading disease, and forced emigration. This led to many groups fleeing to Namibia and Botswana. These acts of domination destabilized indigenous social institutions and severed communities. Apartheid, a political and social system in which white descendants of colonists actively discriminated against non-white South Africans, followed and devastated the self-esteem of non-whites, consolidated political power to whites, and stunted economic capacity of the country (Mountain, 2003).
Cape Town is a prime tourist hub and an appealing place to live because of its climate and coastal location. People migrate to the coast because they are attracted to accessible food, transport connections, ports, work, and leisure opportunities. This means it is growing rapidly. Supporting a growing population requires developing infrastructure and services to match. This only works under the assumption the coast and environment are stable, which it is not (Cartwright et al., 2012). For example, the growing population and developing industries require more water but the availability of water fluctuates due to natural and anthropogenic pressures. Water needs quickly outgrew the colonial water infrastructure, and dams were constructed. Cape Town currently has 14 dams supplying fresh water, all of them being fed by catchments (City of Cape Town Isixeko Sasekapa Stad Kaapstad, 2018). The expansion of the metropolis and its extraction of resources are putting pressure on the biodiversity of the region (Cowling et al., 1996).
When the first colonies were being built in 1652, settlers found that the Cape Peninsula had very little timber to establish their colonies. Therefore, they brought pine timber with them to build their homes. Later, exploratory trips through the peninsula found native forests, such as the Orangekloof forest behind Table Mountain, to use for timber. The Cape Peninsula has a huge variety of trees, many of them being endemic. However, the growing population needed more and more timber and the native forests could no longer sustain this. Looking for a solution, the settlers started experimenting with trees to cultivate and found various oak (Quercus) and european ash (Fraxinus excelsior) trees grew well (TreeTags, 2015). At this point timber was so scarce that settlers started using the fynbos shrub vegetation for firewood. By 1679 all native forests were cleared. The fragile fynbos biomes had also been decimated. To reestablish timber sources, they started to plant radiata pine (Pinus radiata), an exotic rapidly growing tree. These proved to be very successful and by 1889 the Cape Colony Plantation was 3000 acres (408 ha). During WWI and WWII, when there was a world timber shortage, South Africa was able to export timber. This proved its commercial viability and garnered public support (Brittion, 2006).Radiata pine still persist as an invasive species that displaces the endemic fynbos biome (Brittion, 2006).
This natural phenomenon also attracted Dutch settlers. Dutch sailors working for the Dutch East India Company wanted to establish a supply station for ships crossing the ocean from India to Europe. They built large stone aqueducts to redirect water flowing from catchments to ports. These stations lead to the permanent settlement of the Cape Peninsula in 1652 by Europeans. The European settlers wiped out most of the Indigenous population, committing acts of genocide, spreading disease, and forced emigration. This led to many groups fleeing to Namibia and Botswana. These acts of domination destabilized indigenous social institutions and severed communities. Apartheid, a political and social system in which white descendants of colonists actively discriminated against non-white South Africans, followed and devastated the self-esteem of non-whites, consolidated political power to whites, and stunted economic capacity of the country (Mountain, 2003).
Cape Town is a prime tourist hub and an appealing place to live because of its climate and coastal location. People migrate to the coast because they are attracted to accessible food, transport connections, ports, work, and leisure opportunities. This means it is growing rapidly. Supporting a growing population requires developing infrastructure and services to match. This only works under the assumption the coast and environment are stable, which it is not (Cartwright et al., 2012). For example, the growing population and developing industries require more water but the availability of water fluctuates due to natural and anthropogenic pressures. Water needs quickly outgrew the colonial water infrastructure, and dams were constructed. Cape Town currently has 14 dams supplying fresh water, all of them being fed by catchments (City of Cape Town Isixeko Sasekapa Stad Kaapstad, 2018). The expansion of the metropolis and its extraction of resources are putting pressure on the biodiversity of the region (Cowling et al., 1996).
When the first colonies were being built in 1652, settlers found that the Cape Peninsula had very little timber to establish their colonies. Therefore, they brought pine timber with them to build their homes. Later, exploratory trips through the peninsula found native forests, such as the Orangekloof forest behind Table Mountain, to use for timber. The Cape Peninsula has a huge variety of trees, many of them being endemic. However, the growing population needed more and more timber and the native forests could no longer sustain this. Looking for a solution, the settlers started experimenting with trees to cultivate and found various oak (Quercus) and european ash (Fraxinus excelsior) trees grew well (TreeTags, 2015). At this point timber was so scarce that settlers started using the fynbos shrub vegetation for firewood. By 1679 all native forests were cleared. The fragile fynbos biomes had also been decimated. To reestablish timber sources, they started to plant radiata pine (Pinus radiata), an exotic rapidly growing tree. These proved to be very successful and by 1889 the Cape Colony Plantation was 3000 acres (408 ha). During WWI and WWII, when there was a world timber shortage, South Africa was able to export timber. This proved its commercial viability and garnered public support (Brittion, 2006).Radiata pine still persist as an invasive species that displaces the endemic fynbos biome (Brittion, 2006).
Present TENSE
The Cape Peninsula experiences cool wet winters and warm dry summers, but 25% of the peninsula’s rain falls in the summer months (October to march) (Cowling et al., 1996) which means there is an even distribution of precipitation experienced in the region. However, because of anthropogenic climate change, Cape Town is currently experiencing drought conditions. This includes more frequent extreme weather conditions and increasing temperatures (Mukheibir & Ziervogel, 2007). Most climate models predict a reduction in rainfall, especially during peak rain seasons, and an increase in surface temperature of about 1 to 3 degrees Celsius (Cartwright et al., 2012).
It was the moderate temperature and the lack of drought that allowed for the proliferation and high biodiversity of the Peninsula. However, as the drought conditions worsen, the effects are uncertain and current models cannot give long-term predictions. Predictions are erratic because the level of biodiversity is high, there is a low understanding of species tolerance, and the topographic and geological complexity of the region is high. This results in difficulties to find appropriate model parameters (West et al., 2012). For example, there are 8,500 different endemic plants from the fynbos taxa residing on the Cape Peninsula, each with varying functional characteristics such as different root systems. In local small scale experiments fynbos species had varying responses to drought and functional traits measured were not predictors of their resilience (West et al., 2012).
The increasing drought condition is also decreasing water in catchments and reducing runoff (Impson, N.D.). With what water is left, the province is extracting a majority of it. The 14 dams collect most of the water before it reaches the ocean. The water levels of these dams are decreasing and native fish are being affected negatively. The lower water levels and slower flow of streams and rivers are crowding fish and creating warmer water temperatures. These conditions are creating stressful environments for native fish populations and resulting in their populations decreasing. For example the Berg River Redfin (Pseudobarbus burgi) is already disappearing because it is accustomed to adequate flow and water deeper than 50cm (Impson, N.D.). The Cape Peninsula has the highest number of threatened fish in South Africa and some fish are not found elsewhere in the world (Impson, N.D.). The continuing conditions could mean the permanent loss of these species.
The fynbos biome is prone to alien woody weed invasion, which is changing the ecosystems. These invasive species include the exotic trees cultivated by European Settlers and the forestry industry in South Africa. The industrial forests were often planted near mountain catchment areas, such as Assegaaibos, to ensure sufficient water and resources to grow. The Pinus forest planted there, and the frequent intensive fire regimes once used to maintain it, resulted in the displacement and decimation of fynbos species (Currie et al., 2009). Combined with climate change, certain species of fynbos were reduced to isolated pockets and fire regimes resulted in their local extinction (West et al., 2012). The Pinus forest also supports other invasive species such as long leafed wattle (Acria longifolia) and black wattle (Acacia mearnsii). The Assegaaibos site is just one example of riparian vegetation taking over a fynbos ecosystem and creating a novel ecosystem. Figure 4 shows the spread of private forestry plantation (left) in the Cape Peninsula and the distribution of fynbos (right) in 2009.
It was the moderate temperature and the lack of drought that allowed for the proliferation and high biodiversity of the Peninsula. However, as the drought conditions worsen, the effects are uncertain and current models cannot give long-term predictions. Predictions are erratic because the level of biodiversity is high, there is a low understanding of species tolerance, and the topographic and geological complexity of the region is high. This results in difficulties to find appropriate model parameters (West et al., 2012). For example, there are 8,500 different endemic plants from the fynbos taxa residing on the Cape Peninsula, each with varying functional characteristics such as different root systems. In local small scale experiments fynbos species had varying responses to drought and functional traits measured were not predictors of their resilience (West et al., 2012).
The increasing drought condition is also decreasing water in catchments and reducing runoff (Impson, N.D.). With what water is left, the province is extracting a majority of it. The 14 dams collect most of the water before it reaches the ocean. The water levels of these dams are decreasing and native fish are being affected negatively. The lower water levels and slower flow of streams and rivers are crowding fish and creating warmer water temperatures. These conditions are creating stressful environments for native fish populations and resulting in their populations decreasing. For example the Berg River Redfin (Pseudobarbus burgi) is already disappearing because it is accustomed to adequate flow and water deeper than 50cm (Impson, N.D.). The Cape Peninsula has the highest number of threatened fish in South Africa and some fish are not found elsewhere in the world (Impson, N.D.). The continuing conditions could mean the permanent loss of these species.
The fynbos biome is prone to alien woody weed invasion, which is changing the ecosystems. These invasive species include the exotic trees cultivated by European Settlers and the forestry industry in South Africa. The industrial forests were often planted near mountain catchment areas, such as Assegaaibos, to ensure sufficient water and resources to grow. The Pinus forest planted there, and the frequent intensive fire regimes once used to maintain it, resulted in the displacement and decimation of fynbos species (Currie et al., 2009). Combined with climate change, certain species of fynbos were reduced to isolated pockets and fire regimes resulted in their local extinction (West et al., 2012). The Pinus forest also supports other invasive species such as long leafed wattle (Acria longifolia) and black wattle (Acacia mearnsii). The Assegaaibos site is just one example of riparian vegetation taking over a fynbos ecosystem and creating a novel ecosystem. Figure 4 shows the spread of private forestry plantation (left) in the Cape Peninsula and the distribution of fynbos (right) in 2009.
Figure 4. In red the location of private forestry plantations in 2009 near catchment-containing mountain ranges (left). In green the distribution of wild fynbos within the peninsula and mountain ranges (right). Retrieved from: Agriculture Forestry & Fisheries, 2019.
Along with creating a loss in native biodiversity, these invasive trees and plants are also reducing the flow of water from catchments to river systems. The Pinus trees and the wattle are increasing above ground biomass three- to ten-fold. The larger biomass requires more water and absorb water running down from catchments, reducing stream flow (Figure 4). The invasive plants transpire and evaporate the intercepted rainfall, resulting in up to a 50% decrease in stream flows in some areas (Le Maitre, 1996). For example, the Assegaaibos catchment is the source of the Berg River and, through the Berg River Dam, helps provide Cape Town with fresh drinking water (Currie, 2009). Invasive species have resulted in an annual loss of approximately 870 million cubic meters of water from the catchments that supply Cape Town (Le Maitre, 1996). In a time of intense drought, this is especially concerning. The Western Cape forestry industry also practiced intensive burns to destroy fuel loads and control grazing and habitats leaving the earth scarred and repellent to water (Working on Fire, N.D.). Fire exposes highly erodible soils by burning the top layer of organic material. The intense burning of organic material also creates a waxy layer of organic material that cools and sets over the soil and reduces water infiltration (Brooks, N.D.). This creates hydrophobic soil that increases runoff, dries the earth out, and accelerates erosion (Currie, 2009). The resulting erosion destroys |
streams and river banks. The rivers become more spread out, which reduces water flow and quality. The fire also destroyed soil stored seeds. This, in combination with the small dispersal range of fynbos plants, means assisted colonization will be needed to help reestablish the native range of fynbos plants (Currie, 2009).
Unfortunately, not everyone is affected equally by this water crisis. Cape Town is divided. The white citizens predominantly live in coastal and inland suburbs that are supplied by water reservoirs and catchments. Black and non-white citizens have been pushed to the flatlands and experience very little catchment flow (Lindow, 2018). With the pressures of climate change and invasive trees, catchment water becomes almost non-existent. This societal structure is born from Apartheid and European settlers colonizing the water rich hubs on the peninsula for white citizens. Many minority citizens are now without fresh drinking water (Lindow, 2018). They have to receive their water from designated water rationing stations.
The political dysfunction of the city also fuels this disparity. The African National Congress (ANC) is the first post-colonial democratic party to lead South Africa and helped abolish Apartheid (South African History Online, 2019). However the Democratic Alliance (DA), the official opposition to the ANC, won Cape Town and governs the entire Cape Peninsula (Poplak, 2018). The DA is a historically white party and has often been described as serving a “white” agenda (Poplak, 2018). The DA has encouraged the expensive development of the city center and coastal areas; white dominant areas. Development was followed by increased water use, and a disproportional use of water compared to other districts of Cape Town and the remaining Western Cape Province. This further reinforces Cape Town’s spatial division and idea the DA is maintaining an “economic apartheid” (Poplak, 2018). However the ANC is not without fault as well. After the ANC abolished Apartheid, it cut funding to remove invasive species and funding for the conservation of the fynbos biome. The ANC instead redirected money to fund South Africa’s upliftment project to promote equality among citizens (Le Maitre, 1996). In hindsight, this decision probably led to further marginalization of minorities in Cape Town and reinforced unequal access to ecosystem services.
Unfortunately, not everyone is affected equally by this water crisis. Cape Town is divided. The white citizens predominantly live in coastal and inland suburbs that are supplied by water reservoirs and catchments. Black and non-white citizens have been pushed to the flatlands and experience very little catchment flow (Lindow, 2018). With the pressures of climate change and invasive trees, catchment water becomes almost non-existent. This societal structure is born from Apartheid and European settlers colonizing the water rich hubs on the peninsula for white citizens. Many minority citizens are now without fresh drinking water (Lindow, 2018). They have to receive their water from designated water rationing stations.
The political dysfunction of the city also fuels this disparity. The African National Congress (ANC) is the first post-colonial democratic party to lead South Africa and helped abolish Apartheid (South African History Online, 2019). However the Democratic Alliance (DA), the official opposition to the ANC, won Cape Town and governs the entire Cape Peninsula (Poplak, 2018). The DA is a historically white party and has often been described as serving a “white” agenda (Poplak, 2018). The DA has encouraged the expensive development of the city center and coastal areas; white dominant areas. Development was followed by increased water use, and a disproportional use of water compared to other districts of Cape Town and the remaining Western Cape Province. This further reinforces Cape Town’s spatial division and idea the DA is maintaining an “economic apartheid” (Poplak, 2018). However the ANC is not without fault as well. After the ANC abolished Apartheid, it cut funding to remove invasive species and funding for the conservation of the fynbos biome. The ANC instead redirected money to fund South Africa’s upliftment project to promote equality among citizens (Le Maitre, 1996). In hindsight, this decision probably led to further marginalization of minorities in Cape Town and reinforced unequal access to ecosystem services.
fUTURE tRAJECTORIES
Restoring the ecosystem services of the fynbos biome and the catchments will be an important first step in providing clean drinking water for the Cape Peninsula and resolving the regime shift it is currently experiencing. A regime shift is a sudden change in the environment that crosses an irreversible threshold (Wurtzebach & Schultz, 2016). The planting of invasive trees and the breaking of river banks and streams as a result, is an example of a regime shift. This regime is changing the trajectory of the ecosystem to a novel ecosystem. For this reason, one proposed solution is to design ecosystems using the remaining materials at forestry plantations. Using the Assegaaibos site as an example again, the current proposal is to redesign it in three steps. The first step is to clear the invasive species. The second step is to reform the banks of the catchment and streams using timber harvested from the invasive tree species. The third step is to replant native species. The reason the state has not followed through with this design is because it will not necessarily have a net positive monetary return. It will however increase the amount of potable water available, increase the ecological integrity of the system, and create new tourism opportunities (Currie, 2009).
Currently the state is more focused on drilling into the aquifers of the mountain ranges with catchments. There are already plans to drill on top of Table Mountain and extract up to 40 million liters of potable ground water. Conservation experts at Cape Town University are warning this could threaten the biodiversity of the Cape Floral Region and lead to the extinction of rare endemic species such as the Erica bakeri. The DA and the Western Cape Province Government are aware of these concerns but are still exploring the potentials of drilling; having already drilled experimental holes (Nordling, 2018).
When looking at restoration projects, the Department of Environmental Affairs and Developmental Planning in the Western Cape have a division called the biodiversity team. This team protects the ecosystem and ensures the Provincial Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (PBSAP) is followed. Currently the team is focused on removing invasive species, such as honeybush (Cyclopia), and developing an ecological infrastructure investment framework to help the province tackle water security (Western Cape Government, 2018).
Finally, the Wildtrust initiative is helping local Cape Town communities with small and ongoing social-ecological interventions through the Wildland subdivision. Wildland is a network of 60 communities across KwaZulu-Natal, Western, Northern, and Eastern Cape. For example, local knowledge is being used to locate old forgotten freshwater springs and are helping neighbourhoods come together to learn about their role in the water system and the ecosystem around them. Wildland is also currently working with local Capetonians to grow climate adaptive tree species such as olive trees. Communities such as Enkanini, were the water has run dry, are planting these trees along river banks and catchments to prevent bank erosion and displace non-native plants (Lindow, 2018). The Wildland project is focused on designing ecosystems that can displace larger woody invasive trees and help reestablish native fynbos biomes. (Wildtrust, N.D.)
Ultimately there needs to be a regime shift in values and societal structures including how water, people, and the environment are treated. The use of regime shift is appropriate in this sense because the change needs to be sudden and rapid, resulting in a shift of how South Africans think of themselves and their home. The Wildland project is a great example of steps being taken by society to reconnect with, and heal, the land. This is giving communities and the landscapes they live within sovereignty. The marginalized communities, such as Enkanini, are at the mercy of political and colonial structures to receive their ecosystems services. However programs like Wildland may solve this. The future of restoration on the Cape Peninsula and in the surrounding Western Cape is one that is flexible and accounts for the needs of humanity. A fair balance needs to be struck that helps promote the restoration of fynbos and ecosystem services. The removal of invasive species and the Wildland project can potentially achieve this balance.
Currently the state is more focused on drilling into the aquifers of the mountain ranges with catchments. There are already plans to drill on top of Table Mountain and extract up to 40 million liters of potable ground water. Conservation experts at Cape Town University are warning this could threaten the biodiversity of the Cape Floral Region and lead to the extinction of rare endemic species such as the Erica bakeri. The DA and the Western Cape Province Government are aware of these concerns but are still exploring the potentials of drilling; having already drilled experimental holes (Nordling, 2018).
When looking at restoration projects, the Department of Environmental Affairs and Developmental Planning in the Western Cape have a division called the biodiversity team. This team protects the ecosystem and ensures the Provincial Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (PBSAP) is followed. Currently the team is focused on removing invasive species, such as honeybush (Cyclopia), and developing an ecological infrastructure investment framework to help the province tackle water security (Western Cape Government, 2018).
Finally, the Wildtrust initiative is helping local Cape Town communities with small and ongoing social-ecological interventions through the Wildland subdivision. Wildland is a network of 60 communities across KwaZulu-Natal, Western, Northern, and Eastern Cape. For example, local knowledge is being used to locate old forgotten freshwater springs and are helping neighbourhoods come together to learn about their role in the water system and the ecosystem around them. Wildland is also currently working with local Capetonians to grow climate adaptive tree species such as olive trees. Communities such as Enkanini, were the water has run dry, are planting these trees along river banks and catchments to prevent bank erosion and displace non-native plants (Lindow, 2018). The Wildland project is focused on designing ecosystems that can displace larger woody invasive trees and help reestablish native fynbos biomes. (Wildtrust, N.D.)
Ultimately there needs to be a regime shift in values and societal structures including how water, people, and the environment are treated. The use of regime shift is appropriate in this sense because the change needs to be sudden and rapid, resulting in a shift of how South Africans think of themselves and their home. The Wildland project is a great example of steps being taken by society to reconnect with, and heal, the land. This is giving communities and the landscapes they live within sovereignty. The marginalized communities, such as Enkanini, are at the mercy of political and colonial structures to receive their ecosystems services. However programs like Wildland may solve this. The future of restoration on the Cape Peninsula and in the surrounding Western Cape is one that is flexible and accounts for the needs of humanity. A fair balance needs to be struck that helps promote the restoration of fynbos and ecosystem services. The removal of invasive species and the Wildland project can potentially achieve this balance.
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