Plains Bison Reintroduction
Kaitie Betts, Jesse Higgins, Matthew Gallagher
Keywords: Bison, Reintroduction, Rewilding, Banff, National Park
Summary
The re-introduction of the plains bison to Banff National Park beginning in 2017 is an example of changing nature in both cultural and ecological ways. Bison populations in North America were once estimated as large as 30 million, but over-hunting and other human influence had left the Banff area bison-free by the 1850’s (Parks Canada, 2017). Although bison were not found in this area in herds as large as those on the open prairie, they are regarded as ecosystem engineers as well as a cultural keystone species for numerous Indigenous peoples. The project began with selecting bison from a protected herd in Elk Island National Park, which had purchased the last 700 bison from a Montana rancher in the 1900’s. Initially, 16 bison were reintroduced from Elk Island National Park to Panther Valley in Banff National Park, where they remained for the first two years (Parks Canada, 2019). The bison were first transported to an initial enclosed paddock, monitored and fed for 18 months, then released to a designated free-roaming parkland where they currently reside. The reintroduction has already begun to alter the natural landscape and ecosystems that have endured significant alteration in the 140-year absence of bison (Parks Canada, 2019). As of January 15th, 2019, Banff National Park is home to a total of 34 bison, which are actively monitored by Parks Canada, a population increase of 50% since the initial herd of 16 bison were relocated in early February 2017 (Parks Canada, 2019).
|
ECOLOGICAL GENEALOGY
Commonly known as buffalo, the American bison (Bison bison), including the subspecies of plains bison (Bison bison bison) and wood bison (Bison bison athabascae), have been long absent from many of their native ecosystems since their extirpation in the late 18th century. The bison were systematically exterminated from the North American continent through the westward invasion of European settlers on lands historically resided on by Indigenous peoples (Hubbard, 2009; Feir et al, 2017).
|
An estimated 30 to 70 million bison once roamed across North America, including relatively small populations of plains bison in the mountain valleys in what is now Banff National Park (BNP).
As the 20th century neared, this keystone species had been driven close to extinction across the continent, and were entirely removed from the area that is now Banff, where they had roamed for over 6000 years (Parks Canada, 2017; Hinterland… n.d). The reintroduction of the plains bison to BNP in February of 2017 manifests a turning of the tide for this ecological and cultural keystone species. Despite Park’s Canada’s past colonial practices and the cultural genocide brought upon Canada’s Indigenous peoples by the Canadian government, the reintroduction of bison represents the promise of ecological vitality and reconciliation with First Nations.
The bison is a grazing herd animal. Populations often consist of multiple bulls, in addition to a mixture of cows, calves, yearlings, and subadults. Historically, herds are known to have roamed hundreds of kilometers to follow the seasonal availability of a number of preferred forage plants (Hinterland… n.d; Species at…, 2018). Bison are well adapted to winter, preparing by storing fat and growing out their characteristic thick fur coats in the fall. Bison search for food in snowy conditions by swaying their heads back and forth to reveal grasses beneath the snow (Hinterland… n.d).
As the 20th century neared, this keystone species had been driven close to extinction across the continent, and were entirely removed from the area that is now Banff, where they had roamed for over 6000 years (Parks Canada, 2017; Hinterland… n.d). The reintroduction of the plains bison to BNP in February of 2017 manifests a turning of the tide for this ecological and cultural keystone species. Despite Park’s Canada’s past colonial practices and the cultural genocide brought upon Canada’s Indigenous peoples by the Canadian government, the reintroduction of bison represents the promise of ecological vitality and reconciliation with First Nations.
The bison is a grazing herd animal. Populations often consist of multiple bulls, in addition to a mixture of cows, calves, yearlings, and subadults. Historically, herds are known to have roamed hundreds of kilometers to follow the seasonal availability of a number of preferred forage plants (Hinterland… n.d; Species at…, 2018). Bison are well adapted to winter, preparing by storing fat and growing out their characteristic thick fur coats in the fall. Bison search for food in snowy conditions by swaying their heads back and forth to reveal grasses beneath the snow (Hinterland… n.d).
The bison qualifies as an ecosystem engineer. The processes of wallowing and grazing by historic populations of this large mammal influenced their habitat significantly. The bison wallowed in swamps and dust bowls during the spring and summer to avoid flies following the shedding of their heavy winter fur (Hinterland… n.d). These wallows formed ponds in the spring that once provided habitat for other species such as frogs. Additionally, the bison’s grazing preferences of competitively dominant plants created diverse and heterogeneous vegetation, which caused trophic cascades. The bison’s support of short grass species, functioned to provision habitat suitable for species like elk and badger, while the thick tufts of fur shed by the bison provided ideal nesting material for birds and other animals (Nickell et al, 2018; Parks Canada, 2017; Hinterland… n.d).
|
Several First Nations--Ktunaxa (Kutenai), Cree, Niitsitapiksi (Blackfoot), and primarily the Stoney Nakoda Sioux nation, consisting of the Bearspaw, Wesley, and Chiniki bands-- interacted in varying degrees with the ecosystem processes of what is now BNP and with the bison that once resided there (Binnema et al, 2006; Stoney Nakoda…, 2012). The exclusion of Indigenous peoples from the area since the Park’s designation resulted in few accessible westernized sources regarding traditional ecological and cultural practices. The Stoney Nakoda traditionally utilized the Banff area for hunting, ceremonial or celebratory purposes, and medicinal gathering, and many Stoney place names and medicinal knowledge have remained with their people despite a long exclusion from their sacred areas (Stoney Nakoda…, 2012). The targeted eradication of the bison by colonial forces in combination with other means of the Canadian governments resulted in cultural genocide against Indigenous nations. The federal government was able to organize Treaty 7 and remove the Stoney Nakoda as well as the Blackfoot, Peigan, Blood, and Tsuu T’ina from their lands, including the area that became BNP (The Truth…, 2015; CBC, 2001; Binnema et al, 2006). Until 1902 when the park was expanded to border their reserve and envelope the majority of their hunting grounds and main trail, the Stoney Nakoda continued to hunt on both the eastern and western slopes of the Rocky Mountains (Binnema et al, 2006). Some well-known uses of the bison include food, hides used for tipi walls, shoes and clothing, and bones used for making tools. Indigenous land use involved the intentional burning of forests and meadows, which improved habitat quality for many animals including the bison by preventing the expansion of forests and encouraging the growth of the bison’s preferred grass species (Parks Canada, 2017; Alberta Wilderness…, n.d; Feir et al, 2017).
Banff National Park was once subject to plentiful herds of large grazing bison that roamed, feeding on grasses and small plants. Since their extirpation, the removal of the bison’s engineering actions resulted in major changes to their ecosystems. Small herbaceous shrubs and trees began to encroach on meadows that would have historically remained open under the management of bison. In stark contrast to their historical ranges, the bison now occupy approximately 0.5% of the ecosystems they once shaped (Steenweg et al, 2016).
PRESENT CONDITIONS
As of January 15th, 2019, BNP is home to a total of 34 bison, which are actively monitored by Parks Canada (Parks Canada, 2019). The population has seen an increase of 50% since the initial herd of 16 bison were relocated from Elk Island National Park (EINP) to BNP in early February 2017 (Parks Canada, 2019). The project began with selecting bison from a protected herd in EINP which had purchased the last 700 bison from a Montana rancher in the 1900’s. The bison transported to an initial enclosed paddock, monitored and fed for 18 months, then released to the designated free-roaming parkland where they currently reside. The reintroduction has already begun to alter the natural landscape and ecosystems that have endured significant alteration in the 140-year absence of bison (Parks Canada, 2019).
|
Alberta’s current Wildlife Act was amended in 2018 which resulted in a safety buffer zone for the Banff bison population; the Upper Red Deer River Special Bison Area. This buffer zone encompasses a total area of 239 square kilometers (Derworiz, 2018). The Wildlife Act amendment means that bison are now considered wildlife in the Special Bison Area, despite being considered livestock in the rest of the province (Alberta Wilderness Association, 2017-2018). This special buffer zone was created to protect the bison if they wander outside of the park and into any adjacent public land.
The importance of First Nations inclusion in the reintroduction project has been a main consideration from the beginning. In January 2017, the bison relocation process kicked off with a spiritual send-off ceremony performed by the Indigenous nations of Treaty 6 and 7 and the Alberta Metis in partnership with Parks Canada (Parks Canada, 2019). A second ceremony was held in Panther Valley, where elders from the Blood Tribe blessed the relocation grounds in preparation for the return of the bison (University of Lethbridge, 2017). Not only were Indigenous peoples an integral part of the relocation process, but outside of this project Indigenous peoples from Canada and America created and introduced the Buffalo Treaty (CBC, 2015). The Buffalo treaty aims to |
strengthen the bison rewilding effort, while re-establishing the cultural practices of Indigenous nations once reliant on the bison. Actions are being taken presently in respect of the relationship between the Stoney Nakoda nation and the BNP landscape, including the creation of a BNP pass specifically for the Stoney Nakoda people. This exclusive park pass is valid for a lifetime, allowing holders to access the park free of charge, facilitating landscape based cultural practices (Rocky Mountain Outlook, 2018).
FUTURE TRAJECTORY
Considering the pressures facing the reintroduced bison population, the most pressing is a lack of compatible habitat for population growth. The 1,200 square kilometer Banff reintroduction site will inevitably reach carrying capacity, possibly causing overpopulation and starvation of bison. There are also concerns relating to habitat fragmentation from fences and roads that will make it impossible for future natural migration or expansion outside park boundaries. However, if population numbers are managed with predators such as wolves and bears, there may not be issues with population density, genetic drift, habitat compatibility or the need for bison range to expand outside the park. Another option could be to expand and connect bison habitat with Jasper, Yoho and Yellowstone National Parks through wildlife corridors that would promote breeding among populations and provide new feeding grounds and migration routes.
|
The bison is an allogenic ecosystem engineer which will have major impacts on the trajectory of the environment and the habitat heterogeneity of a landscape (Knapp et al, 1999). Ecosystem engineers play a vital role in conservation and species diversity. As discussed, the grazing habits of the bison greatly influence plant community assemblages, resulting in a cascade of effects on other consumer species (Nickell et al, 2018). Presence of bison will serve to provide opportunities for new plant growth, diversify habitat composition, increase interspecies competition, and prevent ecosystem homogenization by hyper abundant species (Nickell et al, 2018). Vegetation will become healthier, fertilized by bison waste, benefitting other ungulates like elk and deer as seen in the Konza Prairies, United States (Knapp et al, 1999). More ideal habitat for birds and small mammals will be created by increased grazing meadows in forest ecosystems. Bison will offer a food source for predators, scavengers and detritivores, and old wallows will turn to ephemeral pools for amphibians (Laundré et al, 2001; Gerlanc et al, 2003). The physical environment will also be modified by bison as they disturb the soil when moving, and wallowing in the dirt to shed fur, remove fleas and spread sent in the mating season (Nickell et al, 2018). This behaviour can have some impressive unseen benefits, including the creation of unique disturbance sites which contain specific biological and physical attributes. Wallows have varying assemblages of arthropods, depending on the age and abandonment of the site; overall, wallowing sites play a vital role in arthropod diversity and abundance in ecosystems, which is important when considering consumers in higher trophic levels (Nickell et al, 2018).
In the future, if bison continue to flourish in the Banff region, it is predicted that the ecosystem will return to past trajectories containing healthy meadows and grassland systems. Assemblages of plants and animals will be in balance from the positive effects subjected by bison activity. Wallows, excrement, and bison movement will stir up the soil improving nutrient cycling and biodiversity. Though it’s also possible that the bison herd could be wiped out as the population is still fairly small and fragile. Upon extreme predation, disease outbreak or possible natural disasters such as landslides. If the reintroduced herd is to continue thriving into the future, the population must reach a stable self sustaining number immune to fluke occurrences and extreme pressures.
References
Nickell, Z., S. Varriano, E. Plemmons, and M. D. Moran. 2018. Ecosystem engineering by bison (Bison bison) wallowing increases arthropod community heterogeneity in space and time. Ecosphere 9(9):e02436.10.1002/ecs2.2436
Steenweg R., Hebblewhite M., Gummer D., Low B., & Hunt B. (2016). Assessing Potential Habitat and Carrying Capacity for Reintroduction of Plains Bison (Bison bison bison) in Banff National Park. PLoS ONE 11(2). doi: 10.1371/journal. pone.0150065
Knapp, A. K., Blair, J. M., Briggs, J. M., Collins, S. L., Hartnett, D. C., Johnson, L. C., & Towne, E. G. (1999). The keystone role of bison in North American tallgrass prairie: Bison increase habitat heterogeneity and alter a broad array of plant, community, and ecosystem processes. BioScience, 49(1), 39-50.
Laundré, J. W., Hernández, L., & Altendorf, K. B. (2001). Wolves, elk, and bison: reestablishing the" landscape of fear" in Yellowstone National Park, USA. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 79(8), 1401-1409.
Gerlanc, N. M., & Kaufman, G. A. (2003). Use of bison wallows by anurans on Konza Prairie. The American midland naturalist, 150(1), 158-169.
Hinterland Who’s Who. (n.d.). North American Bison. Retrieved from http://www.hww.ca/en/wildlife/mammals/north-american-bison.html
Species at Risk Public Registry (2018). Species profile: Plains Bison. Retrieved from http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=805
Parks Canada. (2017). Banff Bison 101. Retrieved from https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/ab/banff/info/gestion-management/bison/info
Nickell, Z., Varriano, S., Plemmons, E., & Moran, M.D. (2018). Ecosystem engineering by bison (Bison bison) wallowing increases arthropod community heterogeneity in space and time. Ecosphere, 9(9). Retrieved from https://esajournals-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/doi/epdf/10.1002/ecs2.2436
Binnema, T., & Niemi, M. (2006). 'Let the Line Be Drawn Now': Wilderness, Conservation, and the Exclusion of Aboriginal People from Banff National Park in Canada. Environmental History, 11. 724-50. Retrieved from https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/stable/pdf/3985800.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Abad993ffbf9d1f401330e997a8205dcf
Stoney Nakoda park pass honours traditional connection to Banff. (2012, September 13). Rocky Mountain Outlook. Retrieved from https://www.rmoutlook.com/article/ stoney-nakoda-park-pass-honours-traditional-connection-to-banff-20120913
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC). (2001). Canada a people’s history: Buffalo slaughter. Retrieved from
https://www.cbc.ca/history/EPISCONTENTSE1EP10CH2PA2LE.html
Alberta Wilderness Association. (2017-2018). Bison – Home in Alberta. Retrieved from https://albertawilderness.ca/issues/wildlife/bison/
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Honouring the truth, reconciling for the future. Retrieved from http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2015/trc/IR4-7-2015-eng.pdf
Feir, D., Gillezeau, R., & Jones, M. (2017). The slaughter of the bison and reversal of fortunes on the great plains. University of Victoria Economics [Department Discussion Paper]. Retrieved from https://www.uvic.ca/socialsciences/economics/assets/docs/discussion/DDP1701.pdf
Hubbard, T. (2009). “The buffaloes are gone” or “return of the buffalo”?- The relationship of the buffalo to Indigenous creative expression. The Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 29(1), 65-85. Retrieved from https://search-proquest com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/docview/218084208?accountid=14846&pq-origsite=summon
Parks Canada. (2019). Bison Blog. Retrieved from: https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/ab/banff/info/gestion-management/bison/blog#feb6
Derworiz, C. (2018, August 21). Bison herd officially protected on provincial land near Banff. Retrieved from https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/bison-herd-officially-protected-on-provincial-land-near-banff-1.4062230
University of Lethbridge. (2017, March 6). Little Bear plays role in bringing bison back to Banff. UNews. Retrieved from https://www.uleth.ca/unews/article/little-bear-plays-role-bringing-bison-back-banff#.XFpSq89KjpA
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC). (2015, August 14). First Nations and tribes sign historic treaty. Retrieved from https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/historic-treaty-signed-among-10-first-nations-and-tribes-in-banff-1.3190715
Rocky Mountain Outlook. (2018, August 30). Stoney Nakoda park pass honours traditional connection to Banff. Retrieved from https://www.rmoutlook.com/article/stoney-nakoda-park-pass-honours-traditional-connection-to-banff-20120913
Steenweg R., Hebblewhite M., Gummer D., Low B., & Hunt B. (2016). Assessing Potential Habitat and Carrying Capacity for Reintroduction of Plains Bison (Bison bison bison) in Banff National Park. PLoS ONE 11(2). doi: 10.1371/journal. pone.0150065
Knapp, A. K., Blair, J. M., Briggs, J. M., Collins, S. L., Hartnett, D. C., Johnson, L. C., & Towne, E. G. (1999). The keystone role of bison in North American tallgrass prairie: Bison increase habitat heterogeneity and alter a broad array of plant, community, and ecosystem processes. BioScience, 49(1), 39-50.
Laundré, J. W., Hernández, L., & Altendorf, K. B. (2001). Wolves, elk, and bison: reestablishing the" landscape of fear" in Yellowstone National Park, USA. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 79(8), 1401-1409.
Gerlanc, N. M., & Kaufman, G. A. (2003). Use of bison wallows by anurans on Konza Prairie. The American midland naturalist, 150(1), 158-169.
Hinterland Who’s Who. (n.d.). North American Bison. Retrieved from http://www.hww.ca/en/wildlife/mammals/north-american-bison.html
Species at Risk Public Registry (2018). Species profile: Plains Bison. Retrieved from http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=805
Parks Canada. (2017). Banff Bison 101. Retrieved from https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/ab/banff/info/gestion-management/bison/info
Nickell, Z., Varriano, S., Plemmons, E., & Moran, M.D. (2018). Ecosystem engineering by bison (Bison bison) wallowing increases arthropod community heterogeneity in space and time. Ecosphere, 9(9). Retrieved from https://esajournals-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/doi/epdf/10.1002/ecs2.2436
Binnema, T., & Niemi, M. (2006). 'Let the Line Be Drawn Now': Wilderness, Conservation, and the Exclusion of Aboriginal People from Banff National Park in Canada. Environmental History, 11. 724-50. Retrieved from https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/stable/pdf/3985800.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Abad993ffbf9d1f401330e997a8205dcf
Stoney Nakoda park pass honours traditional connection to Banff. (2012, September 13). Rocky Mountain Outlook. Retrieved from https://www.rmoutlook.com/article/ stoney-nakoda-park-pass-honours-traditional-connection-to-banff-20120913
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC). (2001). Canada a people’s history: Buffalo slaughter. Retrieved from
https://www.cbc.ca/history/EPISCONTENTSE1EP10CH2PA2LE.html
Alberta Wilderness Association. (2017-2018). Bison – Home in Alberta. Retrieved from https://albertawilderness.ca/issues/wildlife/bison/
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Honouring the truth, reconciling for the future. Retrieved from http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2015/trc/IR4-7-2015-eng.pdf
Feir, D., Gillezeau, R., & Jones, M. (2017). The slaughter of the bison and reversal of fortunes on the great plains. University of Victoria Economics [Department Discussion Paper]. Retrieved from https://www.uvic.ca/socialsciences/economics/assets/docs/discussion/DDP1701.pdf
Hubbard, T. (2009). “The buffaloes are gone” or “return of the buffalo”?- The relationship of the buffalo to Indigenous creative expression. The Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 29(1), 65-85. Retrieved from https://search-proquest com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/docview/218084208?accountid=14846&pq-origsite=summon
Parks Canada. (2019). Bison Blog. Retrieved from: https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/ab/banff/info/gestion-management/bison/blog#feb6
Derworiz, C. (2018, August 21). Bison herd officially protected on provincial land near Banff. Retrieved from https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/bison-herd-officially-protected-on-provincial-land-near-banff-1.4062230
University of Lethbridge. (2017, March 6). Little Bear plays role in bringing bison back to Banff. UNews. Retrieved from https://www.uleth.ca/unews/article/little-bear-plays-role-bringing-bison-back-banff#.XFpSq89KjpA
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC). (2015, August 14). First Nations and tribes sign historic treaty. Retrieved from https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/historic-treaty-signed-among-10-first-nations-and-tribes-in-banff-1.3190715
Rocky Mountain Outlook. (2018, August 30). Stoney Nakoda park pass honours traditional connection to Banff. Retrieved from https://www.rmoutlook.com/article/stoney-nakoda-park-pass-honours-traditional-connection-to-banff-20120913