The Uplands Park:
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Genealogy
Vancouver Island was covered entirely with ice 15,000 years ago, which the land emerged from the ocean after the glaciation period (Matthews, 2015). BC Geological Survey have identified the bedrock features and preserved traces of ice and meltwater streams from the last glaciation at Cattle point, near the shoreline (Reeuwyk, 2016). The origin of the land explains the rockiness and shallow soil depth of the landscape today. At first, the aspen forest had dominated the vegetation in the Oak Bay area accompanied by ancient Bison after the glaciation. Then, the lodgepole pine forest dominated the landscape until the climate became warmer, allowing open grassy and Douglas fir forests to take over the landscape. The archaeological evidence shows the Lekwungen people, start living in the area from this era onwards (Matthews, 2015).
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Historically, the Lekwungen people were utilizing and actively managing the Uplands area as a garden for gathering foods and also as cemetery field for millennia (Mathews, 2013; Matthews, 2015). The land survey records from the late 19th century illustrate how the Lekwungen people’s practices shaped the Garry Oak ecosystem through active management and human-induced disturbances (The Uplands Ltd, 1997; MacDougall, 2004). The Lekwungen people are known as ancestors to the Songhees people, who cultivated today’s Oak Bay and Cadboro Bay areas (Moreau, 2010).
Several hundreds of cairns are found near Oak Bay and Cadboro Bay region. There is an evidence of the transition in cemetery design before 1500 years ago and 1500 to 500 years ago. Harlan Smith of the American Museum of Natural History did the early archeological investigation on Southern Vancouver Island, finding a gradual change of burial features and evidence of the Lekwungen people’s traditional funeral ritual from ashes, yet the reason for this transition is unclear (Mathews, 2013).
Several hundreds of cairns are found near Oak Bay and Cadboro Bay region. There is an evidence of the transition in cemetery design before 1500 years ago and 1500 to 500 years ago. Harlan Smith of the American Museum of Natural History did the early archeological investigation on Southern Vancouver Island, finding a gradual change of burial features and evidence of the Lekwungen people’s traditional funeral ritual from ashes, yet the reason for this transition is unclear (Mathews, 2013).
Tragically, early archeological surveys involved antiquarian looting and grave robbing, which was popular among new settlers destroyed cairns that should have been respected and treated as sacred (Mathews, 2013: Moreau, 2010). Due to its characteristic dry, rocky, and glacial landscape, the eastern part of the park was preferred and cultivated by the Lukwungen people for building their cemeteries and gardens. This landscape provided the rocky materials needed for building burial mounds and cairns. Interestingly, present camas field shows a correlation with a location of cairns (Figure 1), which represent how the landscape was integrated and actively managed by Lekwungen people (Mathews, 2013).
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A small fur trade was established in Victoria between 1843 to1850 by the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) and by the early 1850s, the HBC had negotiated and purchased almost the entire Oak Bay district from the First Nations people through Douglas Treaties (McCann, 2014). The beauty of wild Garry Oak meadow landscape and its fairly flat feature had attracted the European colonizers to settle on the land for cultivation (Weiser, 2009). 455 ha of lands in the Uplands area was purchased by HBC in 1852, which was soon cleared out to build the Uplands Farm (Figure 2) (Mathews, 2013). During this colonial era, some exotic plant species were introduced to Vancouver Island by European settlers. For example, Scotch broom, which is now treated as an invasive species in Garry Oak ecosystem, was introduced by William Grant for a reminder of nature in his home country (Causton, 2015).
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In 1907, the trio of Winnipeg businessmen led by William Hicks Gardner purchased 188 ha portion of the HBC’s farm, which became “The Uplands” (Mathews, 2013). A year later, the residential neighborhood design was planned by a landscape designer John Olmsted, a partner in Olmsted Brothers that created Central Park in New York City (McCann, 2014; OakBayNEWS, 2006). A general plan for the Uplands was a park-like artistic subdivision, yet all the wild Garry Oak landscape was planned to be subdivided for a residential area (Mathews, 2013: McCann, 2014).
A surveyor’s map of the Uplands farm was created by J. Herrick MacGregor in April 1907 (Figure 3). The map shows vegetation coverage, contour lines, existing buildings and Olmsted’s road design plan (Mathews, 2013). The Uplands was then sold to Franco-Canadian Company in 1911, although Gardner still owned the mortgage. An extraordinarily detailed survey map was made in 1917 (Figure 4), with each feature and aspect of the land including the number of cairns, type of trees, vegetation coverage, and geological features (The Uplands Ltd., 1917). The Oak Bay municipality ran the referendum on purchasing 76 acres of the undeveloped portion of the Uplands to keep the remaining wilderness area as “nature in urban landscape” in March 1946, primarily due to the failure of tax payment by the Franco-Canadian Company (Causton, 2015). After a strong push from the Oak Bay citizens to keep the remaining wilderness area as a public park, the municipality purchased the ownership, which then became a public park. |
Socio-ecological characterization
The boundary between the residential area and the terrestrial portion of the park are roads that surround the park area and bisects Cattle point from the main park. There are several major trails in the park, where people can bike and walk a dog. Due to the regulation by the municipality of Oak Bay and the Friends of Uplands Park (FOUP) for bike and dog entry to the trail during the blue camas and other wildflower's blooming season is prohibited (Lee, 2012). This restriction helps prevent the soil compaction that negatively impacts native wildflowers' growth as well as its sensitive other vegetation. These artificial boundaries between wilderness area of the park and infrastructures may restrict ecological function and services as well as an interaction between species. The Uplands Park plays multiple roles for the people living nearby. It serves as a public park for recreational purposes, as well as an educational landscape where people can learn about ecological restoration, First Nation’s historical use of land, and changes in forest successional stages over time.
Today, the Uplands Park is considered as a hybrid ecosystem having elements of both historical and novel ecosystems. The Park is legally owned by the municipality of Oak Bay and actively managed by volunteers from FOUP (Hobbs, 2013; Friends of Uplands Park, 2016). The stewardship by FOUP is working for maintaining Garry Oak ecosystem through restoration activities and keeping an eye on the current ecosystem of the area (Friends of Uplands Park, 2016; Lidkea, 2016).When the HBC negotiated with the Lekwungen people for land ownership through Douglas Treaties, traditional harvesting was supposed to be allowed, but it never happened as well as utilization and management of lands by the First Nations people which has not been acknowledged by the municipality either (Penn, 2006).
Today, the Uplands Park is considered as a hybrid ecosystem having elements of both historical and novel ecosystems. The Park is legally owned by the municipality of Oak Bay and actively managed by volunteers from FOUP (Hobbs, 2013; Friends of Uplands Park, 2016). The stewardship by FOUP is working for maintaining Garry Oak ecosystem through restoration activities and keeping an eye on the current ecosystem of the area (Friends of Uplands Park, 2016; Lidkea, 2016).When the HBC negotiated with the Lekwungen people for land ownership through Douglas Treaties, traditional harvesting was supposed to be allowed, but it never happened as well as utilization and management of lands by the First Nations people which has not been acknowledged by the municipality either (Penn, 2006).
Figure 5: Contrasting vegetation coverage between early growth Open Garry Oak meadow and old growth Douglas fir forest. The vegetation at the far back shows Douglas fir forest, and the open field illustrates Garry Oak ecosystem. Photography taken at the Cowichan Garry Oak Preserve, near Duncan B.C. (Odaka, 2016)
The Uplands Park is an open Garry Oak meadow ecosystem consisting of 21 to 23 rare and endangered native plant species (Lidkea, 2016). Although, the park is rich in a variety of native species, more than 95% of its habitat has been lost over the last century when the HBC negotiated and purchased the land ownership from the Lekwungen people (Van Reeuwyk, 2016). The decrease in population and abundance of rare and endangered native species have been observed. At least five rare native plant species have been lost in the last two decades, and three rare butterflies in the last six decades. Similar to many other natural park sites, the existence of exotic invasive plant species is one of an issue that the Uplands Park faces. English Ivy, Daphne, and Scotch Broom are commonly observed at the site, which has been removed by the restoration volunteers through the FOUP and experts hired using funding for protecting rare species (Van Reeuwyk, 2016). A century ago, Douglas fir and another exotic pine tree were not observed in the area, but today there are at least 24 Douglas fir trees and some aggressive exotic pine trees found in the park (Uplands Ltd, 1917; Van Reeuwyk, 2016). The appearance of fir and pine trees implies that the vegetation type is shifting gradually into conifer forest in the absence of active management by the Lekwungen peoples (Figure 5).
A significant difference between landscape characteristic in the western and eastern side of the park is observed (Mathews, 2013). The western part of the park is a saturated wetland with some vegetation coverage. On the other hand, the eastern area including the terrestrial part of Cattle point is dry, open, and consisting of low bedrock exposures covered by a thin layer of glacioflurial till from the last glaciation. The vegetation in Uplands Park supports wild animal species habitat and provides nesting areas for bird species, including spotted towlee, chipping sparrow, Anna’s Hummingbird, and Bewick’s Wren (Van Reeuwyk, 2016).
Future trajectory
There are several potential future trajectories for the Uplands Park. One option is to leave the landscape as it is without any human interventions, and let nature do its own thing for regeneration (Corlett, 2016). Development is another possibility, yet these two approaches are not likely a possibility for Uplands Park given the fact that park area has experienced active restoration projects for years by its neighbourhood community and FOUP. This will lead to one of two more likely potential trajectories for Uplands Park.
One potential future landscape trajectory is restoring the ecosystem to regain its traditional Garry Oak meadow ecosystem that was once supported by the Lekwungen peoples through prescribed burning and sustained their livelihood as well as non-human species in the landscape (MacDougall, 2004; Weiser, 2009). In other words, restoring the landscape could be done to conserve the historical heritage of the landscape through active restoration and management strategies to push the ecosystem back into its historical state (Smith, 2014; Vellend, 2013). Although this point of view in restoring the landscape could be achieved by minimizing the negative impacts from exotic invasive species and human impacts on the landscape, considering the impacts on the natural environment through the Anthropocene and rapid climate change, preserving the historical ecosystem could be over simplifying the approach to sustainable conservation. Recognizing the limitation in maintaining historical landscapes would introduce an approach from ethnoecology of adaptive, evolutionary, and community-based restoration that can take into account of changes and unexpected events that happen in the landscape through flexible and long term vision of the landscape by acknowledging the relationship between humans and nature (Lepofsky, 2009). Thus, the future ecosystem could be a hybrid or a non-analog ecosystem preserving some historical aspects, but at the same time it evolves and develops based on the current condition and adapts to new, unpredictable changes (Williams, 2007).
A restoration project that focuses on the present landscape and climatic conditions, and continuously adapts and evolves accordingly to new or unexpected conditions is the best approach for restoration activities. Based on this trajectory, restoration projects could involve some introduced non-native species in a controlled manner with active management and monitoring to keep a healthy species interaction among all species. It also has to be flexible to address uncertain future events including climate change and species extinctions. From this perspective, management focused on supporting biodiverse and resilient ecosystems as a whole is better than just focusing on a survival of a single endangered species. Hence, people can put effort in assisting nature’s healing processes through regenerating its landscapes using what is available and be creative with alternatives and possibilities (Miller, 2016; Shackelford, 2013). To achieve this, the inclusion of interdisciplinary perspectives as well as applying traditional ecological knowledge by consultations from both the local and indigenous communities who know the land on a longer and broader time scale is crucial (Smith, 2014). Active communications and collaboration with a diverse community will help to reshape the direction of the restoration project that is more resilient to changes and includes multiple community interests as well as benefits for both human and non-human species that are part of the ecosystem. Thus, this potential future trajectory of the Uplands Park could be characterized as a hybrid of a native and novel ecosystem that is shaped by active community involvement and its capability in adapting to changes.
A similar situation and trend in restoring classical Garry Oak ecosystems are observed in many parts of the Pacific Northwest coast. The restoration site at Cowichan Garry Oak Preserve managed by the Nature Conservancy Canada is one example of an open meadow ecosystem reserve with active restoration management that can be related to the Uplands Park (NCC, 2016). What makes the Cowichan preserve special is their community-based approach in the restoration project. The Cowichan preserve has a partnership with the multidisciplinary communities and organization such as the First Nation’s communities, governments, academic institutions, and industries who shares the common vision for future landscape. The Uplands Park could follow the Cowichan preserve’s footsteps for the ongoing restoration plans with active community engagement for the future policy making.
One potential future landscape trajectory is restoring the ecosystem to regain its traditional Garry Oak meadow ecosystem that was once supported by the Lekwungen peoples through prescribed burning and sustained their livelihood as well as non-human species in the landscape (MacDougall, 2004; Weiser, 2009). In other words, restoring the landscape could be done to conserve the historical heritage of the landscape through active restoration and management strategies to push the ecosystem back into its historical state (Smith, 2014; Vellend, 2013). Although this point of view in restoring the landscape could be achieved by minimizing the negative impacts from exotic invasive species and human impacts on the landscape, considering the impacts on the natural environment through the Anthropocene and rapid climate change, preserving the historical ecosystem could be over simplifying the approach to sustainable conservation. Recognizing the limitation in maintaining historical landscapes would introduce an approach from ethnoecology of adaptive, evolutionary, and community-based restoration that can take into account of changes and unexpected events that happen in the landscape through flexible and long term vision of the landscape by acknowledging the relationship between humans and nature (Lepofsky, 2009). Thus, the future ecosystem could be a hybrid or a non-analog ecosystem preserving some historical aspects, but at the same time it evolves and develops based on the current condition and adapts to new, unpredictable changes (Williams, 2007).
A restoration project that focuses on the present landscape and climatic conditions, and continuously adapts and evolves accordingly to new or unexpected conditions is the best approach for restoration activities. Based on this trajectory, restoration projects could involve some introduced non-native species in a controlled manner with active management and monitoring to keep a healthy species interaction among all species. It also has to be flexible to address uncertain future events including climate change and species extinctions. From this perspective, management focused on supporting biodiverse and resilient ecosystems as a whole is better than just focusing on a survival of a single endangered species. Hence, people can put effort in assisting nature’s healing processes through regenerating its landscapes using what is available and be creative with alternatives and possibilities (Miller, 2016; Shackelford, 2013). To achieve this, the inclusion of interdisciplinary perspectives as well as applying traditional ecological knowledge by consultations from both the local and indigenous communities who know the land on a longer and broader time scale is crucial (Smith, 2014). Active communications and collaboration with a diverse community will help to reshape the direction of the restoration project that is more resilient to changes and includes multiple community interests as well as benefits for both human and non-human species that are part of the ecosystem. Thus, this potential future trajectory of the Uplands Park could be characterized as a hybrid of a native and novel ecosystem that is shaped by active community involvement and its capability in adapting to changes.
A similar situation and trend in restoring classical Garry Oak ecosystems are observed in many parts of the Pacific Northwest coast. The restoration site at Cowichan Garry Oak Preserve managed by the Nature Conservancy Canada is one example of an open meadow ecosystem reserve with active restoration management that can be related to the Uplands Park (NCC, 2016). What makes the Cowichan preserve special is their community-based approach in the restoration project. The Cowichan preserve has a partnership with the multidisciplinary communities and organization such as the First Nation’s communities, governments, academic institutions, and industries who shares the common vision for future landscape. The Uplands Park could follow the Cowichan preserve’s footsteps for the ongoing restoration plans with active community engagement for the future policy making.
References
Causton, C. (2015). A gem in our midst- Peaceful Uplands Park. Tweed magazine.
Corlett, R.T. (2016). Restoration, Reintroduction, and Rewilding in a Changing World. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. Article in Press.
Donlan, C.J. (2006). Pleistocene Rewilding: An Optimistic Agenda for Twenty-First Century Conservation. The American Naturalist. 168 (5), 660-681.
Friends of Uplands Park. (2016). About The Friends of Uplands Park (FOUP). Retrieved from https://friendsofuplandspark.wordpress.com/about/ Last Accessed: October 14th 2016
Hobbs, R.J., Higgs, E.S., and Hall, C.M. (2013). Chapter 1: Introduction: Why Novel Ecosystems? Novel Ecosystems: Intervening in the New Ecological World Order, 1st edition. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Jeschke, J.M. et al. (2014). Defining the Impact of Non-native Species. Conservation Biology. 28(5), 1188-1194.
Lee, B. (2012, August 24). New features help protect Uplands Park.
Lepofsky, D. (2009). The Past, Present, and Future of Traditional Resource and Environmental Management. Journal of Ethnobiology. 29(2), 161-166.
Lidkea, M. (2016). Uplands Park Ivy & Broom Bash- October 15 & 16- Hosted by the Friends of Uplands Park. The Friends of Uplands Park. Retrieved from: https://friendsofuplandspark.org/. Last Accessed: October 28th, 2016
MacDougall, A.S., Beckwith, B.R., and Maslovat, C.Y. (2004). Defining Conservation Strategies with Historical Perspectives: A Case Study from a Degraded Oak Grassland Ecosystem. Conservation Biology. 18(2), 455-465.
Mathews, D. (2013). Archaeological survey and research in Uplands Park (DcRt124), Corporation of the District of the Oak Bay, B.C. Oak Bay Parks Department, Archeology Branch
Matthews, K. (2015). Uplands Park KIOSK features a new FOUP Information Cabinet. Friends of Uplands Park. Retrieved from: https://friendsofuplandspark.org/category/kiosk-uplands-park-garry-oak-ecosystems-theme/ Last Accessed: November 20th, 2016.
McCann, L. (2014). John Olmsted’s Uplands: “Victoria’s Celebrated residential Park”. BC Studies, 11-37, 169
McCann, L. (2014). The Uplands: A masterpiece of residential design. Lime Design Inc.
Miller, J.R., and Bestelmeyer, B.T. (2016). What’s wrong with novel ecosystems, really? Restoration Ecology. 24(5), 577-582.
Moreau, V. (April 14th, 2010). Park stones are the markers of history. Oak Bay News.
NCC. (2016). Cowichan Garry Oak Preserve. Nature Conservancy Canada. Retrieved from: http://www.natureconservancy.ca/en/where-we-work/british-columbia/featured-projects/cgop/?referrer=https://www.google.ca/. Last Accessed: November 11th, 2016.
Oak Bay Municipality. (2016). Dogs in Parks. Oak Bay Municipality. Retrieved from: https://www.oakbay.ca/parks-recreation/parks-playgrounds/dogs-parks. Last Accessed: October 28th, 2016
Oak Bay Municipality. (2016). Oak Bay War Memorial. Oak Bay Municipality. Retrieved from: https://www.oakbay.ca/our-community/history/heritage/heritage-sites/tour-other-historic-sites/oak-bay-war-memorial Last Accessed: October 28th, 2016
Penn, B. (2006, June). Restoring Camas and Culture to Lekwungen and Victoria: An intervier with Lekwungen Cheryl Bryce. Focus MAGAZINE.
Shakelford, N., Hobbs, R.J., Heller, N.E., Hallett, L.M., and Seastedt, T.R. (2013). Finding a middle-ground: The native/ non-native debate. Biological Conservation. 158, 55-62.
Smith, T.L. (2014). The Anthropology of Historical Photography in a Protected Area: Life and Death in Waterton Lakes National Park, Alberta. Anthropologica. 56(1), 117-133.
The Uplands Ltd. (1917, August). Topographic Survey of Block 26. Oak Bay Archives (2014-002-002, 003, 007, 010), Oak Bay Municipality, Victoria B.C.
Van Reeuwyk, C. (2016, March 9). Park plays vital biodiversity role. Oak Bay News.
Van Reeuwyk, C. (2016, April 14). Dog leashes not optimal in Uplands in Spring. Oak Bay News
Van Reeuwyk, C. (2016, September 13). Unwanted fir trees pulled from park. Oak Bay News.
Vellend, M. Brown, C.D., Kharouba, H.M., McCune, J.L., and Myers-Smith, I.H. (2013). Historical Ecology: Using Unconventional Data Sources to Test for Effects of Global Environmental Changes. American Journal of Botany. 100(7), 1294-1305.
Weiser, A. and Lepofsky, D. (2009). Ancient Land Use and Management of Ebey’s Prairie, Whidbey Island, Washington. Journal of Ethnobiology.29(2), 184-212.
Wigzell, S. (2016, April). Uplands Park Trail Map Prepared by Simon Wigzell. The Friends of Uplands Park. Retrieved from: https://friendsofuplandspark.org/maps-of-uplands-park/ Last Accessed: October 28th, 2016
Williams, J.W., and Jackson, S.T. (2007). Novel climates, no-analog communities, and ecological surprises. Front Ecol Environ. 5(9), 475-482
Corlett, R.T. (2016). Restoration, Reintroduction, and Rewilding in a Changing World. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. Article in Press.
Donlan, C.J. (2006). Pleistocene Rewilding: An Optimistic Agenda for Twenty-First Century Conservation. The American Naturalist. 168 (5), 660-681.
Friends of Uplands Park. (2016). About The Friends of Uplands Park (FOUP). Retrieved from https://friendsofuplandspark.wordpress.com/about/ Last Accessed: October 14th 2016
Hobbs, R.J., Higgs, E.S., and Hall, C.M. (2013). Chapter 1: Introduction: Why Novel Ecosystems? Novel Ecosystems: Intervening in the New Ecological World Order, 1st edition. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Jeschke, J.M. et al. (2014). Defining the Impact of Non-native Species. Conservation Biology. 28(5), 1188-1194.
Lee, B. (2012, August 24). New features help protect Uplands Park.
Lepofsky, D. (2009). The Past, Present, and Future of Traditional Resource and Environmental Management. Journal of Ethnobiology. 29(2), 161-166.
Lidkea, M. (2016). Uplands Park Ivy & Broom Bash- October 15 & 16- Hosted by the Friends of Uplands Park. The Friends of Uplands Park. Retrieved from: https://friendsofuplandspark.org/. Last Accessed: October 28th, 2016
MacDougall, A.S., Beckwith, B.R., and Maslovat, C.Y. (2004). Defining Conservation Strategies with Historical Perspectives: A Case Study from a Degraded Oak Grassland Ecosystem. Conservation Biology. 18(2), 455-465.
Mathews, D. (2013). Archaeological survey and research in Uplands Park (DcRt124), Corporation of the District of the Oak Bay, B.C. Oak Bay Parks Department, Archeology Branch
Matthews, K. (2015). Uplands Park KIOSK features a new FOUP Information Cabinet. Friends of Uplands Park. Retrieved from: https://friendsofuplandspark.org/category/kiosk-uplands-park-garry-oak-ecosystems-theme/ Last Accessed: November 20th, 2016.
McCann, L. (2014). John Olmsted’s Uplands: “Victoria’s Celebrated residential Park”. BC Studies, 11-37, 169
McCann, L. (2014). The Uplands: A masterpiece of residential design. Lime Design Inc.
Miller, J.R., and Bestelmeyer, B.T. (2016). What’s wrong with novel ecosystems, really? Restoration Ecology. 24(5), 577-582.
Moreau, V. (April 14th, 2010). Park stones are the markers of history. Oak Bay News.
NCC. (2016). Cowichan Garry Oak Preserve. Nature Conservancy Canada. Retrieved from: http://www.natureconservancy.ca/en/where-we-work/british-columbia/featured-projects/cgop/?referrer=https://www.google.ca/. Last Accessed: November 11th, 2016.
Oak Bay Municipality. (2016). Dogs in Parks. Oak Bay Municipality. Retrieved from: https://www.oakbay.ca/parks-recreation/parks-playgrounds/dogs-parks. Last Accessed: October 28th, 2016
Oak Bay Municipality. (2016). Oak Bay War Memorial. Oak Bay Municipality. Retrieved from: https://www.oakbay.ca/our-community/history/heritage/heritage-sites/tour-other-historic-sites/oak-bay-war-memorial Last Accessed: October 28th, 2016
Penn, B. (2006, June). Restoring Camas and Culture to Lekwungen and Victoria: An intervier with Lekwungen Cheryl Bryce. Focus MAGAZINE.
Shakelford, N., Hobbs, R.J., Heller, N.E., Hallett, L.M., and Seastedt, T.R. (2013). Finding a middle-ground: The native/ non-native debate. Biological Conservation. 158, 55-62.
Smith, T.L. (2014). The Anthropology of Historical Photography in a Protected Area: Life and Death in Waterton Lakes National Park, Alberta. Anthropologica. 56(1), 117-133.
The Uplands Ltd. (1917, August). Topographic Survey of Block 26. Oak Bay Archives (2014-002-002, 003, 007, 010), Oak Bay Municipality, Victoria B.C.
Van Reeuwyk, C. (2016, March 9). Park plays vital biodiversity role. Oak Bay News.
Van Reeuwyk, C. (2016, April 14). Dog leashes not optimal in Uplands in Spring. Oak Bay News
Van Reeuwyk, C. (2016, September 13). Unwanted fir trees pulled from park. Oak Bay News.
Vellend, M. Brown, C.D., Kharouba, H.M., McCune, J.L., and Myers-Smith, I.H. (2013). Historical Ecology: Using Unconventional Data Sources to Test for Effects of Global Environmental Changes. American Journal of Botany. 100(7), 1294-1305.
Weiser, A. and Lepofsky, D. (2009). Ancient Land Use and Management of Ebey’s Prairie, Whidbey Island, Washington. Journal of Ethnobiology.29(2), 184-212.
Wigzell, S. (2016, April). Uplands Park Trail Map Prepared by Simon Wigzell. The Friends of Uplands Park. Retrieved from: https://friendsofuplandspark.org/maps-of-uplands-park/ Last Accessed: October 28th, 2016
Williams, J.W., and Jackson, S.T. (2007). Novel climates, no-analog communities, and ecological surprises. Front Ecol Environ. 5(9), 475-482