Beacon Hill Park: Restoring functionality to a patchwork landscape
Ilsa Hildebrand and Brandon WilliamsonSummary:
This case study examines the ecological evolution of Beacon Hill Park in Victoria, British Columbia as a function of changing sociocultural uses throughout its history. What was once part of a vast expanse of Garry oak savannah managed by Lekwungen Peoples, now exists as a mosaic of historic, hybrid and novel ecosystems. The study offers possible future trajectories the site may take, including one which involves the restoration of the park’s Garry oak meadows based on pre-colonial references, including the reintroduction of historic species such as the western bluebird (Sialia mexicana) and Taylor’s checkerspot butterfly (Euphydryas editha taylori). In areas that have transitioned to a novel ecosystem or where such restoration is constrained by modern usage, the study looks at prioritizing restoration of ecosystem function instead of historic species composition. The study considers potential alternatives to prescribed burning to recover the historical ecological function of fire in Garry Oak ecosystem management. |
ECOLOGICAL GENEALOGY
In 1842, James Douglas, head of the Hudson’s Bay Company, surveyed southern Vancouver Island for a suitable place to establish a British colony and chose Victoria based on a vast expanse of grassland suitable for farming (Duff, 1969; Plasterer, 1967, Ringuette, 2004). Resting east of Beacon Hill Park, Douglas christened the area Clover Point after the carpet of springbank clover (Trifolium workmskioldii) covering the landscape (Ringuette, 2004). One year later, construction of Fort Victoria commenced (Duff, 1969).
Rolling hills and a patch-work mosaic of flower strewn meadows, scattered with oak trees and bordered by water, also paralleled the ideal 19th century British landscape (Fuchs, 2001). Douglas originally described Beacon Hill as picturesque meadows with tall, lush, endemic grasses populating approximately ten square miles (Ringuette, 2004). Clustered stands of Garry oak (Quercus garryana) were interspersed throughout the region, surrounded by conifer trees, arbutus (Arbutus menziesii), and associated shrubs (Ringuette, 2004). Colourful flowers such as blue camas (Camassia quamash), chocolate lilies (Fritillaria camschatcensis), white fawn lilies (Erythronium oregonum), satin flower (Olsynium douglasii), golden paintbrush (Castilleja levisecta) and lupins (Lupinus spp.) were observed, attracting over 40 species of endemic butterflies, including the currently endangered Taylor’s checkerspot (Euphydryas editha taylori) (Klinkenberg, 2017). Diverse vegetation provided refuge to sensitive biota such as the western bluebird (Sialia mexicana) and western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) (Slater, 2017).
Although the savannah style grasslands were valued by settlers, they were created and managed by the Lekwungen First Peoples (ancestors of the Songhees and Esquimalt First Nations) for thousands of years, promoting the growth of Indigenous plant gardens (camas, root, etc.) (Feldman, 2016). To Indigenous communities, Clover Point was named Meegan, translating to “warmed by the sun”, which described the rocky hill where people aggregated to sun bathe (Ringuette, 2004). Upon the arrival of British settlers to Beacon Hill Park, Lewkungen Peoples were occupying surrounding villages in Cadboro Bay and Esquimalt (Ringuette, 2004). Although absent from the park, evidence of previous land use and occupancy by Indigenous Peoples remained embedded within the landscape, including numerous burial cairns (Ringuette, 2004).
After protection of the park by James Douglas in 1858, colonists began utilizing Beacon Hill as they would an English Commons, dramatically transforming native ecosystems (Ringuette, 2004). Recreational activities including horse riding, tree chopping, picnicking, and group events were commonplace (Plasterer, 1967). Livestock were set to graze, replacing the role of native herbivores such as black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and Roosevelt elk (Cervus canadensis roosevelti) (Ringuette, 2004). Livestock introduced highly tolerant, agronomic grasses, which quickly began outcompeting and replacing native species (Ringuette, 2004). After grazing subsided, non-native shrub species appeared throughout the park (Ringuette, 2004).
Rolling hills and a patch-work mosaic of flower strewn meadows, scattered with oak trees and bordered by water, also paralleled the ideal 19th century British landscape (Fuchs, 2001). Douglas originally described Beacon Hill as picturesque meadows with tall, lush, endemic grasses populating approximately ten square miles (Ringuette, 2004). Clustered stands of Garry oak (Quercus garryana) were interspersed throughout the region, surrounded by conifer trees, arbutus (Arbutus menziesii), and associated shrubs (Ringuette, 2004). Colourful flowers such as blue camas (Camassia quamash), chocolate lilies (Fritillaria camschatcensis), white fawn lilies (Erythronium oregonum), satin flower (Olsynium douglasii), golden paintbrush (Castilleja levisecta) and lupins (Lupinus spp.) were observed, attracting over 40 species of endemic butterflies, including the currently endangered Taylor’s checkerspot (Euphydryas editha taylori) (Klinkenberg, 2017). Diverse vegetation provided refuge to sensitive biota such as the western bluebird (Sialia mexicana) and western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) (Slater, 2017).
Although the savannah style grasslands were valued by settlers, they were created and managed by the Lekwungen First Peoples (ancestors of the Songhees and Esquimalt First Nations) for thousands of years, promoting the growth of Indigenous plant gardens (camas, root, etc.) (Feldman, 2016). To Indigenous communities, Clover Point was named Meegan, translating to “warmed by the sun”, which described the rocky hill where people aggregated to sun bathe (Ringuette, 2004). Upon the arrival of British settlers to Beacon Hill Park, Lewkungen Peoples were occupying surrounding villages in Cadboro Bay and Esquimalt (Ringuette, 2004). Although absent from the park, evidence of previous land use and occupancy by Indigenous Peoples remained embedded within the landscape, including numerous burial cairns (Ringuette, 2004).
After protection of the park by James Douglas in 1858, colonists began utilizing Beacon Hill as they would an English Commons, dramatically transforming native ecosystems (Ringuette, 2004). Recreational activities including horse riding, tree chopping, picnicking, and group events were commonplace (Plasterer, 1967). Livestock were set to graze, replacing the role of native herbivores such as black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and Roosevelt elk (Cervus canadensis roosevelti) (Ringuette, 2004). Livestock introduced highly tolerant, agronomic grasses, which quickly began outcompeting and replacing native species (Ringuette, 2004). After grazing subsided, non-native shrub species appeared throughout the park (Ringuette, 2004).
Figure 1. Beacon Hill Park shortly after the construction of Goodacre Lake, circa the 1880s. This area is now dominated by conifer trees (Maynard & Maynard, 188).
|
An integral shift from native to hybrid environments occurred after colonists forced Indigenous communities to cease all land management practices (Snelgrove, 2014). Historically, diverse, grassland ecosystems were maintained through controlled burns by Indigenous communities to promote the growth of edible fruits, roots, and berries (Snelgrove, 2014). Thick brush and undergrowth was strategically cleared, with fires ignited at periodic intervals to provide a surplus of nutrients, integral for the continued persistence of camas strewn, Garry oak savannahs (Snelgrove, 2014). Colonists viewed Indigenous land management as a threat to European settlements and property, misunderstanding how fundamental controlled burns were in shaping rich, heterogeneous landscapes (Snelgrove, 2014). Therefore, suppression of native fire regimes was enforced by settlers almost immediately following occupation, pushing native ecosystems in the Park along an alternative trajectory (Feldman, 2016; Beckwith, 2005).
|
PRESENT TENSE
Today, Beacon Hill Park provides a wide array of ecological, cultural, recreational, and tourism-related functions. Much of the park’s landscape is dedicated to recreational facilities, including baseball diamonds, tennis courts, lawn bowling fields, playgrounds, petting zoo, and a concert stage. Between these facilities exists as a mosaic of ecosystems including Garry oak savannahs, Douglas fir forests, open grasslands, intertidal zones, as well as display gardens consisting primarily of non-native plants. For the purposes of brevity, this case study will focus primarily on the ecosystems north of Dallas Road. These ecosystems are presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2. A GIS map of Beacon Hill Park overlaid with sensitive ecosystem areas. Garry oak systems are indicated by yellow and pink, coastal Douglas fir forest in brown and green, and coastal bluffs in purple along the southern shore. The Garry oak meadows east of Arbutus way includes a mix of coniferous trees as well (C.R.D., 2019).
|
Despite the altered ecological structure of Beacon Hill Park, traditional Garry oak ecosystems remain in two distinct areas of the park as vestiges of the landscape that once spanned most of what is now Greater Victoria (Brayshaw, 1998). One of these ecosystems can be found in the craggy northwest corner of the park, west of Arbutus Way and north of Goodacre Lake. The other is in the southern portion around Beacon Hill, where Garry oaks are surrounded by shrubbier native vegetation including Nootka rose (Rosa nutkana), snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), and Indian plum (Oemleria cerasiformis), with open fields of native camas, western buttercup (Ranunculus occidentalis), and other wildflowers. This southerly savannah has been more heavily affected by invasive species such as English ivy (Hedera helix), Himalayan blackberry (Rubus armeniacus), and Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius), based on recent personal surveys (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Invasive English ivy overtaking native vegetation in the southeast woods (Photo taken March 5, 2019).
|
Although these areas most closely resemble a historical ecosystem, both areas have undergone change due to the loss of historic fire regimes, the presence of invasive grasses, and the loss of historic species such as the Western Bluebird (Garry Oak, 2015) and Taylor’s checkerspot butterfly (Schultz, 2011). Many historic flower species such as the Fern-leaved lomatium (Lomatium dissectum) and Menzie’s larkspur (Delphinium menziesii) have been reduced to either minute populations or have been extirpated entirely (Brayshaw, 1998). Conifer encroachment poses another risk to these areas (Brayshaw, 1998) as Garry oaks are unable to compete with the overshadowing evergreen trees (Garry Oak, 2011). A third area of the park, between Arbutus Way and Heywood Avenue also possesses numerous Garry oaks and other native species, but conifers and non-native deciduous trees not typically associated with Garry oak ecosystems have been planted in between, and therefore more closely resembles a hybrid ecosystem with novel elements than a historical one.
A large portion of Beacon Hill Park is devoted to display gardens featuring mostly exotic ornamental flora under a sparse canopy of both native and non-native trees. This area features a series of seven manmade lakes (Ringuette, 2007). Litter, sediments, bird feces, and stagnant water have contributed to poor water quality, eutrophication, and anoxia. However, aeration systems were added and the native Canadian waterweed (Elodea canadensis) was planted in three lakes including the largest, Goodacre Lake, providing a natural filtration system and improved conditions (Ringuette, 2007). The remaining four lakes still exhibit poor quality and eutrophication. Despite the artificial landscaping, these areas provide refuge for a variety of birds including mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), American wigeons (Anas americana), hooded mergansers (Lophodytes cucullatus), (Ringuette, 2007) and one of Vancouver Island’s largest great blue heron (Ardea herodias) rookeries, which nest in surrounding Douglas firs (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and sequoias (Heiman, 2007).
A large portion of Beacon Hill Park is devoted to display gardens featuring mostly exotic ornamental flora under a sparse canopy of both native and non-native trees. This area features a series of seven manmade lakes (Ringuette, 2007). Litter, sediments, bird feces, and stagnant water have contributed to poor water quality, eutrophication, and anoxia. However, aeration systems were added and the native Canadian waterweed (Elodea canadensis) was planted in three lakes including the largest, Goodacre Lake, providing a natural filtration system and improved conditions (Ringuette, 2007). The remaining four lakes still exhibit poor quality and eutrophication. Despite the artificial landscaping, these areas provide refuge for a variety of birds including mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), American wigeons (Anas americana), hooded mergansers (Lophodytes cucullatus), (Ringuette, 2007) and one of Vancouver Island’s largest great blue heron (Ardea herodias) rookeries, which nest in surrounding Douglas firs (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and sequoias (Heiman, 2007).
FUTURE TRAJECTORIES
There are many potential trajectories for the future structure and function of Beacon Hill Park’s patchwork of ecosystems, depending on the vision of the city staff, residents, volunteers, and local First Nations groups. One potential path observes the gradual degradation of ecosystem functioning, loss of historic species compositions, and succession of culturally-significant Garry oak ecosystems towards a conifer forest. This succession would most likely occur in the mixed forest between Arbutus Way and Heywood Avenue where Douglas fir, sequoia, and other trees are already interspersed amongst Garry oaks, which are likely to be overshadowed over time. This trend would likely spread to the two remaining Garry oak meadows through dispersion from nearby conifer stands. Algae would continue to wreak havoc on the smaller lakes, and invasive species would continue to spread. This trajectory is relatively unlikely, given the cultural value of the park, increased environmental advocacy, and the recent announcement that the City of Victoria will be looking to co-manage Meegan with the Lekwungen First Nations (2019-2022 Draft, 2019).
However, it is also unlikely that the park will entirely revert to its historic state. In the City of Victoria’s 2019-2022 Draft Strategic Plan, the City stated its intention to transition all garden beds to native plants with the exception of Beacon Hill Park (2019-2022 Draft, 2019). As these landscaped areas are intended to retain an array of exotic ornamental flowers and artificial lakes, management decisions may need to shift from replicating some historical reference ecosystem to enhancement of ecological function. Management may need to prioritize actions that enhance water quality such as expanding E. canadensis and other native filtering plants to all manmade lakes. Under this trajectory, flowering plants should be selected based on their benefit to local pollinators such as bees, butterflies, and hummingbirds, their ability to fix nutrients in the soil, food provision for humans and animals, and other ecosystem services. Recreational facilities such as tennis courts and baseball fields would remain unchanged.
Under this trajectory, the recovery of the historical species composition and physical structure of the extant Garry oak meadows would likely be a primary goal. This would involve the reintroduction of extirpated Garry oak-associated species, including the western bluebird and the Taylor’s checkerspot bufferfly, which have suffered from habitat discontinuity and loss, encroachment by invasive species, and the deterioration of meadow-oak landscapes (Schultz, 2011; Feldman, 2016). To re-establish native populations, management practices that encourage the protection and restoration of savannah-oak grassland habitats would be implemented and monitored (Schultz, 2011; Feldman 2016).
As the area surrounding Beacon Hill Park is heavily populated with a long history of fire suppression, prescribed burns could be replaced with a combination of mowing and safe herbicide treatments, which have been effective in emulating the ecological role of fire in disturbance-dependent grassland ecosystems (MacDougall & Turkington, 2007), and have been critical to the success of previous reintroductions of the Taylor’s checkerspot butterfly (Schultz, 2011). Additional options include the utilization of goats to control invasive species and open up the savannah understory. Goats have demonstrated abilities for eliminating exotic plants, as they can be trained to graze on select species and house gut enzymes which prevent the transmission of invasive seeds (Silliman, 2014). Additionally, grazing is known to promote the growth of select wildflowers (lupin, camas), increase the production of butterfly eggs/larvae, increase larvae survivorship, as well as positively impact butterfly species that are subject to encroachment via coniferous trees (Schultz, 2011). Such a program has proven successful on Saltspring Island in controlling Himalayan blackberry, English ivy, and Scotch broom, using the Nubian breed of domestic goat (Invasive Species, n.d.). Goat grazing would be implemented annually over an extensive period for optimal results.
Garry oaks and endangered wildflowers could be planted throughout the bare portions of the southern meadow, providing additional, structured niche space for native biota. Nest boxes would be positioned in desirable locations (low branches, nest cavities, open forest understory), leaving snags to attract western bluebird populations (Feldman 2016). After nests are constructed and insect populations increase, reintroduction of western bluebirds could take place in more established regions. Reintroduction procedures could follow those implemented by Vancouver Island’s “Bring Back the Bluebird” project where the establishment of western bluebirds is proving successful in the Cowichan Valley (Gary Oak, 2015). Given the role of habitat discontinuity in species decline, conversion of the mixed forest between Heywood Avenue and Arbutus Way may prove essential for the successful reintroduction of these species. This would provide a crucial link connecting the two currently isolated northern and southern Garry oak ecosystems. However, this would require selective removal of conifer trees, and public support for tree removal may be an obstacle. To ensure the long-term ecological integrity of Beacon Hill Park, on-going ecological monitoring must be paired with consultation of local residents and the Lekwungen Peoples.
However, it is also unlikely that the park will entirely revert to its historic state. In the City of Victoria’s 2019-2022 Draft Strategic Plan, the City stated its intention to transition all garden beds to native plants with the exception of Beacon Hill Park (2019-2022 Draft, 2019). As these landscaped areas are intended to retain an array of exotic ornamental flowers and artificial lakes, management decisions may need to shift from replicating some historical reference ecosystem to enhancement of ecological function. Management may need to prioritize actions that enhance water quality such as expanding E. canadensis and other native filtering plants to all manmade lakes. Under this trajectory, flowering plants should be selected based on their benefit to local pollinators such as bees, butterflies, and hummingbirds, their ability to fix nutrients in the soil, food provision for humans and animals, and other ecosystem services. Recreational facilities such as tennis courts and baseball fields would remain unchanged.
Under this trajectory, the recovery of the historical species composition and physical structure of the extant Garry oak meadows would likely be a primary goal. This would involve the reintroduction of extirpated Garry oak-associated species, including the western bluebird and the Taylor’s checkerspot bufferfly, which have suffered from habitat discontinuity and loss, encroachment by invasive species, and the deterioration of meadow-oak landscapes (Schultz, 2011; Feldman, 2016). To re-establish native populations, management practices that encourage the protection and restoration of savannah-oak grassland habitats would be implemented and monitored (Schultz, 2011; Feldman 2016).
As the area surrounding Beacon Hill Park is heavily populated with a long history of fire suppression, prescribed burns could be replaced with a combination of mowing and safe herbicide treatments, which have been effective in emulating the ecological role of fire in disturbance-dependent grassland ecosystems (MacDougall & Turkington, 2007), and have been critical to the success of previous reintroductions of the Taylor’s checkerspot butterfly (Schultz, 2011). Additional options include the utilization of goats to control invasive species and open up the savannah understory. Goats have demonstrated abilities for eliminating exotic plants, as they can be trained to graze on select species and house gut enzymes which prevent the transmission of invasive seeds (Silliman, 2014). Additionally, grazing is known to promote the growth of select wildflowers (lupin, camas), increase the production of butterfly eggs/larvae, increase larvae survivorship, as well as positively impact butterfly species that are subject to encroachment via coniferous trees (Schultz, 2011). Such a program has proven successful on Saltspring Island in controlling Himalayan blackberry, English ivy, and Scotch broom, using the Nubian breed of domestic goat (Invasive Species, n.d.). Goat grazing would be implemented annually over an extensive period for optimal results.
Garry oaks and endangered wildflowers could be planted throughout the bare portions of the southern meadow, providing additional, structured niche space for native biota. Nest boxes would be positioned in desirable locations (low branches, nest cavities, open forest understory), leaving snags to attract western bluebird populations (Feldman 2016). After nests are constructed and insect populations increase, reintroduction of western bluebirds could take place in more established regions. Reintroduction procedures could follow those implemented by Vancouver Island’s “Bring Back the Bluebird” project where the establishment of western bluebirds is proving successful in the Cowichan Valley (Gary Oak, 2015). Given the role of habitat discontinuity in species decline, conversion of the mixed forest between Heywood Avenue and Arbutus Way may prove essential for the successful reintroduction of these species. This would provide a crucial link connecting the two currently isolated northern and southern Garry oak ecosystems. However, this would require selective removal of conifer trees, and public support for tree removal may be an obstacle. To ensure the long-term ecological integrity of Beacon Hill Park, on-going ecological monitoring must be paired with consultation of local residents and the Lekwungen Peoples.
References
Beckwith, B.R. (2005). Knowing Every Corner of the Land: The Ethnoecological Approach to Restoration. Restoration in the Rainshadow. Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Meeting of the Society for Ecological Restoration, BC Chapter. Galiano Island, Sept. 30 – October 2.
Brayshaw, T.C. (1998). Park ecosystems (Communities). Retrieved from https://www.friendsofbeaconhillpark.ca/ecosystems.htm
City of Victoria (2019). 2019-2022 draft strategic plan. Retrieved from https://www.victoria.ca/assets/City~Hall/Mayor~Council/Documents/City%20of%20Victoria%202019-2022%20Draft%20Strategic%20Plan.pdf
C.R.D. (2019) CRD Regional Map [map]. Retrieved from https://maps.crd.bc.ca/Html5Viewer/?viewer=public
Duff, W. (1969). The Fort Victoria Treaties. BC Studies: The British Columbian Quarterly, (3), 3-57.
Feldman, R. E., Krannitz, P. G. (2016). Bird composition of oak ecosystem fragments in an urbanized setting: The influence of adjacent coniferous forest fragments. Ecoscience, 11(3): 338-346.
Fuchs, M. A. (2001). Towards a recovery strategy for Garry Oak associated ecosystems in canada: Ecological assessment and literature review. Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, Pacific and Yukon Region. Retrieved from: http://www.goert.ca/documents/doc-Eco-Assessment-Lit-Review-2001.pdf.
Garry Oak Ecosystems Recovery Team. (2011). Restoring British Columbia’s Garry oak ecosystems: Principles and practices. Retrieved from http://www.goert.ca/documents/restorationbooklet/GOERT-restoration-booklet-c8.pdf
Garry Oak Ecosystems Recovery Team. (2015). Bring back the bluebirds project. Retrieved from http://www.goert.ca/activities/wp-content/images/Bring-Back-the-Bluebirds-project-overview-August-2015.pdf
Heiman, C. (2007, March 25). Beacon Hill herons in trouble. The Times Colonist. Retrieved from https://www.pressreader.com
Invasive Species Council of B.C. (n.d.). Salt Spring goats take bite out of invasive species problem. Retrieved from https://bcinvasives.ca/news-events/recent-highlights/salt-spring-goats-take-bite-out-of-invasive-species-problem
Klinkenberg, B. (2017). E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Plants of British Columbia. Retrieved from: http://ibis.geog.ubc.ca/biodiversity/eflora/.
MacDougall, A.S., & Turkington, R. (2007). Does the disturbance matter when restoring disturbance-dependent grasslands? Restoration Ecology, 15(2).
Maynard R., & Maynard, H. (188-). Beacon Hill Park, Goodacre Lake. PR-0037-M07221. City of Victoria archives.
Plasterer, H. (1967). Fort Victoria: From Furt Trading Post to Capital City of British Columbia, Canada. Oregon State, OR. Retrieved from: file:///C:/Users/ilsam/Downloads/for_vic_fur_tra_pos%20(1).pdf.
Ringuette, J. (2004). Beacon Hill Park History. Retrieved from http://beaconhillparkhistory.org/contents/chapter1.htm?fbclid=IwAR1tmCOUaXpVze1eg_55C-euirJsfH3L0KsVUpafm1v9YUZDIGVlTQXbZxM
Ringuette, J. (2007) Beneath the surface: What’s going on in Beacon Hill Park lakes? Retrieved from http://www.beaconhillparkhistory.org/articles/101_beacon_hill_lakes.htm
Schultz, E., Henry, E., Carleton, A., Hicks, T., & Thomas R. (2011). Conservation of Prairie-Oak Butterflies in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Northwest Science, 85(2): 361-388.
Silliman, B. R., Mozdzer, T., Angelini, C., Brundage, J., Esselink, P., Bakker, J. P., Gedan, K. B., Koppel, J., & Baldwin, A. H. (2014). Livestock as a potential biological control agent for an invasive wetland plant. PubMed Central. doi: 10.7717/peerj.567.
Slater, G. L., & Altman, B. (2017). Avian restoration in the prairie-oak ecosystem: A reintroduction case study of Western Bluebirds to San Juan Island, Washington. Northwest Scientific Association, 85(2): 223-232.
Snelgrove, C., Dhamon, R. K., Corntassel, J. (2014). Unsettling settler colonialism: The discourse and politics of settlers, and solidarity with Indigenous nations. Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society, 3(2): 1-32.
Brayshaw, T.C. (1998). Park ecosystems (Communities). Retrieved from https://www.friendsofbeaconhillpark.ca/ecosystems.htm
City of Victoria (2019). 2019-2022 draft strategic plan. Retrieved from https://www.victoria.ca/assets/City~Hall/Mayor~Council/Documents/City%20of%20Victoria%202019-2022%20Draft%20Strategic%20Plan.pdf
C.R.D. (2019) CRD Regional Map [map]. Retrieved from https://maps.crd.bc.ca/Html5Viewer/?viewer=public
Duff, W. (1969). The Fort Victoria Treaties. BC Studies: The British Columbian Quarterly, (3), 3-57.
Feldman, R. E., Krannitz, P. G. (2016). Bird composition of oak ecosystem fragments in an urbanized setting: The influence of adjacent coniferous forest fragments. Ecoscience, 11(3): 338-346.
Fuchs, M. A. (2001). Towards a recovery strategy for Garry Oak associated ecosystems in canada: Ecological assessment and literature review. Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, Pacific and Yukon Region. Retrieved from: http://www.goert.ca/documents/doc-Eco-Assessment-Lit-Review-2001.pdf.
Garry Oak Ecosystems Recovery Team. (2011). Restoring British Columbia’s Garry oak ecosystems: Principles and practices. Retrieved from http://www.goert.ca/documents/restorationbooklet/GOERT-restoration-booklet-c8.pdf
Garry Oak Ecosystems Recovery Team. (2015). Bring back the bluebirds project. Retrieved from http://www.goert.ca/activities/wp-content/images/Bring-Back-the-Bluebirds-project-overview-August-2015.pdf
Heiman, C. (2007, March 25). Beacon Hill herons in trouble. The Times Colonist. Retrieved from https://www.pressreader.com
Invasive Species Council of B.C. (n.d.). Salt Spring goats take bite out of invasive species problem. Retrieved from https://bcinvasives.ca/news-events/recent-highlights/salt-spring-goats-take-bite-out-of-invasive-species-problem
Klinkenberg, B. (2017). E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Plants of British Columbia. Retrieved from: http://ibis.geog.ubc.ca/biodiversity/eflora/.
MacDougall, A.S., & Turkington, R. (2007). Does the disturbance matter when restoring disturbance-dependent grasslands? Restoration Ecology, 15(2).
Maynard R., & Maynard, H. (188-). Beacon Hill Park, Goodacre Lake. PR-0037-M07221. City of Victoria archives.
Plasterer, H. (1967). Fort Victoria: From Furt Trading Post to Capital City of British Columbia, Canada. Oregon State, OR. Retrieved from: file:///C:/Users/ilsam/Downloads/for_vic_fur_tra_pos%20(1).pdf.
Ringuette, J. (2004). Beacon Hill Park History. Retrieved from http://beaconhillparkhistory.org/contents/chapter1.htm?fbclid=IwAR1tmCOUaXpVze1eg_55C-euirJsfH3L0KsVUpafm1v9YUZDIGVlTQXbZxM
Ringuette, J. (2007) Beneath the surface: What’s going on in Beacon Hill Park lakes? Retrieved from http://www.beaconhillparkhistory.org/articles/101_beacon_hill_lakes.htm
Schultz, E., Henry, E., Carleton, A., Hicks, T., & Thomas R. (2011). Conservation of Prairie-Oak Butterflies in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Northwest Science, 85(2): 361-388.
Silliman, B. R., Mozdzer, T., Angelini, C., Brundage, J., Esselink, P., Bakker, J. P., Gedan, K. B., Koppel, J., & Baldwin, A. H. (2014). Livestock as a potential biological control agent for an invasive wetland plant. PubMed Central. doi: 10.7717/peerj.567.
Slater, G. L., & Altman, B. (2017). Avian restoration in the prairie-oak ecosystem: A reintroduction case study of Western Bluebirds to San Juan Island, Washington. Northwest Scientific Association, 85(2): 223-232.
Snelgrove, C., Dhamon, R. K., Corntassel, J. (2014). Unsettling settler colonialism: The discourse and politics of settlers, and solidarity with Indigenous nations. Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society, 3(2): 1-32.