The Invasive Algae of the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary, Adelaide, Australia.
By Deanie Harding
Key words: Invasive species, Caulerpa taxifolia, Estuary, Seagrass, Ocean acidification
Summary
The green alga known as Caulerpa taxifolia is native to the Northern Territory, Queensland, Western Australia and on Lord Howe Island (Creese et al., 2004). However, in another region of Australia, this species takes on a different light. Around 2002, an invasive species of Caulerpa taxifolia was discovered in Port River, Adelaide, Australia (Roth‐Schulze et al., 2018). It is suggested to have been introduced accidentally through the aquarium trade, and then distributed further by fragments attached to recreational boats (Burfeind et al., 2013). More precisely, this algae has established itself within the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary, a region characterized by a rich diversity and intricate interconnection of various ecosystems. Current research highlights the ecological impact of C. taxifolia on native ecosystems, namely seagrass meadows. Factors like the species’ ability to rapidly proliferate and its lack of natural predators pose significant threats. Despite the bleak prospects for the impact and spread of C. taxifolia, exacerbated by industrialization, pollution and ocean acidification, there are recent suggestions for removal methods that provide a glimmer of hope. Methods such as salt application, coupled with more proactive management approaches, provides optimism for preserving the ecological integrity of the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary.
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Ecological Genealogy.
In 1831, Captain Collet Barker discovered the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary, along Adelaide’s southern coast in Australia (Johnston & Harbison, 2005). Situated on the Gulf of St Vincent, the estuary features a U-shape divided by Torrens and Gardens Islands. The Port River lies on the western side, while the Barker Inlet is on the eastern side, connected by the North Arm south of Garden Island (Johnston & Harbison, 2005). Geological and environmental processes formed this inlet and estuarine area, including longshore drift in the Holocene era, which elongated the Lefevre Peninsula, redirecting water flow to create the Torrens channel (now the Port River) and forming a delta with islands and shoals (Bell, 2012). Coastal zones in the area comprise the St Kilda formation, characterized by white sand dunes along the coast and estuarine and lagoonal mud facies more inland from the dunes (Bourman et al., 2010).
Since time immemorial, the Adelaide region in South Australia has been the ancestral land of the Kaurna people, predating European settlement in 1836. With a population of approximately 300 individuals, the Kaurna people depended on the lagoon area, situated inland from the Port River and Barker Inlet for a diverse range of food sources (Heyes, 1999). Since European settlement, the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary has become a blend of both natural and anthropogenic ecosystems and features. More recently, anthropogenic presence has allowed for the invasive species, Caulerpa taxifolia, sometimes referred to as Killer alga, to infiltrate. It is proposed that this green algae species was introduced to temperate Australia through the aquarium trade, and distributed to various estuaries through fragments inadvertently attached to recreational boats (Burfeind et al., 2013). This invasive species exhibits rapid growth and dispersal capabilities, significantly impacting local ecosystems and wildlife, warranting considerable attention.
In 2002, C. taxifolia was discovered in Port River and West Lakes, Adelaide, a manmade estuary south of the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary (Roth‐Schulze et al., 2018). This invasive green algae grew to occupy around five and a half square kilometers of the estuary, with the heavier infestations encompassing the south west side of Torrens Island, along the south of Garden Island and up the south east side of Torrens Island (Tanner, 2011). C. taxifolia was successfully removed from West Lakes, however, despite efforts to eradicate and control the species, it is still present in the Port River and continues to spread (Roth‐Schulze et al., 2018). In order to gain a deeper understanding of the environment inhabited by this invasive species, the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary can be described as an expansive aquatic system, encompassing mud flats, mangroves, and saltmarshes, experiencing minimal freshwater inflow (Jones et al., 1996). The eastern side, Barker Inlet, is a nationally important wetland (J. Morelli, 1995). Beyond lies the man-made Barker Inlet wetlands, established in 1994 to address environmental issues and provide wildlife habitat (French, 1999). The Port River, serving as Adelaide’s primary port, is a human-engineered shipping channel lacking natural estuarine features (Johnston & Harbison, 2005).
Following European settlement and the increased prevalence of industrial processes, the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary has encountered challenging environmental conditions. In 1967, an effluent discharge system was introduced to manage waste from the Bolivar Sewage Treatment Works, east of the estuary. The discharge and stormwater runoff, from the city of Adelaide, was being directly released into Barker Inlet (Overton, 1993 & Rachel French, 1999). Despite efforts such as the creation of Barker Inlet wetlands to improve stormwater quality, pollution from sewage, urban and agricultural runoff persisted (Rachel French, 1999 & Overton, 1993). The nutrient enrichments, from these processes, led to increased algal growth, known as eutrophication, and limited the light availability to seagrass. This process has caused approximately a twenty-five percent loss of seagrass along the Adelaide coast, in the past five or six decades (Short, 2012).
Since time immemorial, the Adelaide region in South Australia has been the ancestral land of the Kaurna people, predating European settlement in 1836. With a population of approximately 300 individuals, the Kaurna people depended on the lagoon area, situated inland from the Port River and Barker Inlet for a diverse range of food sources (Heyes, 1999). Since European settlement, the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary has become a blend of both natural and anthropogenic ecosystems and features. More recently, anthropogenic presence has allowed for the invasive species, Caulerpa taxifolia, sometimes referred to as Killer alga, to infiltrate. It is proposed that this green algae species was introduced to temperate Australia through the aquarium trade, and distributed to various estuaries through fragments inadvertently attached to recreational boats (Burfeind et al., 2013). This invasive species exhibits rapid growth and dispersal capabilities, significantly impacting local ecosystems and wildlife, warranting considerable attention.
In 2002, C. taxifolia was discovered in Port River and West Lakes, Adelaide, a manmade estuary south of the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary (Roth‐Schulze et al., 2018). This invasive green algae grew to occupy around five and a half square kilometers of the estuary, with the heavier infestations encompassing the south west side of Torrens Island, along the south of Garden Island and up the south east side of Torrens Island (Tanner, 2011). C. taxifolia was successfully removed from West Lakes, however, despite efforts to eradicate and control the species, it is still present in the Port River and continues to spread (Roth‐Schulze et al., 2018). In order to gain a deeper understanding of the environment inhabited by this invasive species, the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary can be described as an expansive aquatic system, encompassing mud flats, mangroves, and saltmarshes, experiencing minimal freshwater inflow (Jones et al., 1996). The eastern side, Barker Inlet, is a nationally important wetland (J. Morelli, 1995). Beyond lies the man-made Barker Inlet wetlands, established in 1994 to address environmental issues and provide wildlife habitat (French, 1999). The Port River, serving as Adelaide’s primary port, is a human-engineered shipping channel lacking natural estuarine features (Johnston & Harbison, 2005).
Following European settlement and the increased prevalence of industrial processes, the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary has encountered challenging environmental conditions. In 1967, an effluent discharge system was introduced to manage waste from the Bolivar Sewage Treatment Works, east of the estuary. The discharge and stormwater runoff, from the city of Adelaide, was being directly released into Barker Inlet (Overton, 1993 & Rachel French, 1999). Despite efforts such as the creation of Barker Inlet wetlands to improve stormwater quality, pollution from sewage, urban and agricultural runoff persisted (Rachel French, 1999 & Overton, 1993). The nutrient enrichments, from these processes, led to increased algal growth, known as eutrophication, and limited the light availability to seagrass. This process has caused approximately a twenty-five percent loss of seagrass along the Adelaide coast, in the past five or six decades (Short, 2012).
Present Tense
To grasp the negative impacts on the ecosystem, understanding its key species is crucial. The ecosystem comprises four main habitat types: saltmarshes, mangroves, seagrass meadows, and non-vegetated areas (Bloomfield & Gillanders, 2005). Seagrass meadows, primarily Eelgrass (Zostera muelleri), lie along the coastline, supporting abundant fish and invertebrates. Adjacent to the seagrass meadows are Grey mangroves (Avicennia marina), forming dense forests with a canopy cover. Saltmarshes, dominated by Beaded Glasswort (Sarcocornia quinqueflora), occur behind the mangroves at slightly higher elevations. Finally, non-vegetated areas consist of coarse to fine sand sediments hosting floating macroalgae (Ulva rigida) (Bloomfield & Gillanders, 2005).
In recent years, these ecosystems have faced the dual impact of anthropogenic pollution and the significant influence of the invasive species Caulerpa taxifolia on the environment. The success of this species is likely due to its proficient capability for establishment, primarily due to its asexual reproduction. Through the process of fragmentation, small segments of the plant disperse and traverse the seafloor through bottom currents, eventually anchoring to structures like seagrass beds or other features on the seafloor (Creese et al., 2004). A report for the Department of Primary Industries and Regions (PIRSA) biosecurity has designated the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary as the containment zone, with the remainder of South Australia considered free of C. taxifolia. The report emphasizes the significance of early detection through reporting and basic biosecurity practices, particularly in relation to boats and marinas, given the invasive species’ dispersal capability (Wiltshire & Deveney, 2017). Managing these aspects is underscored as a priority, considering the challenges associated with full eradication of the species.
This species holds particular significance because of its dispersal capabilities and detrimental traits. Specifically, C. taxifolia can proliferate and effectively establish itself due to the lack of natural predators and its defensive capabilities . This invasive species can grow roughly one centimeter per day and produces repellent toxins, making it unappealing to numerous herbivores (Kluser et al., 2004). The predominant adverse impact of this species arises from its ability to outcompete other marine vegetation. Particularly, it can expand across extensive areas, forming dense mats that subsequently disrupt the feeding behaviors and distributions of certain benthic species within the vicinity (Glasby, 2013). However, research indicates that sparse seagrass cover is more vulnerable to the effects of C. taxifolia, while dense seagrass is less susceptible and may even exert a negative impact on C. taxifolia due to factors such as competition for light (Glasby, 2013). Another study revealed that although total fish abundance is not significantly impacted by C. taxifolia, ecosystems with this species tend to exhibit much lower species richness (Tanner, 2011).
In recent years, these ecosystems have faced the dual impact of anthropogenic pollution and the significant influence of the invasive species Caulerpa taxifolia on the environment. The success of this species is likely due to its proficient capability for establishment, primarily due to its asexual reproduction. Through the process of fragmentation, small segments of the plant disperse and traverse the seafloor through bottom currents, eventually anchoring to structures like seagrass beds or other features on the seafloor (Creese et al., 2004). A report for the Department of Primary Industries and Regions (PIRSA) biosecurity has designated the Barker Inlet-Port River estuary as the containment zone, with the remainder of South Australia considered free of C. taxifolia. The report emphasizes the significance of early detection through reporting and basic biosecurity practices, particularly in relation to boats and marinas, given the invasive species’ dispersal capability (Wiltshire & Deveney, 2017). Managing these aspects is underscored as a priority, considering the challenges associated with full eradication of the species.
This species holds particular significance because of its dispersal capabilities and detrimental traits. Specifically, C. taxifolia can proliferate and effectively establish itself due to the lack of natural predators and its defensive capabilities . This invasive species can grow roughly one centimeter per day and produces repellent toxins, making it unappealing to numerous herbivores (Kluser et al., 2004). The predominant adverse impact of this species arises from its ability to outcompete other marine vegetation. Particularly, it can expand across extensive areas, forming dense mats that subsequently disrupt the feeding behaviors and distributions of certain benthic species within the vicinity (Glasby, 2013). However, research indicates that sparse seagrass cover is more vulnerable to the effects of C. taxifolia, while dense seagrass is less susceptible and may even exert a negative impact on C. taxifolia due to factors such as competition for light (Glasby, 2013). Another study revealed that although total fish abundance is not significantly impacted by C. taxifolia, ecosystems with this species tend to exhibit much lower species richness (Tanner, 2011).
Future Trajectory
Without effective mitigation strategies, Caulerpa taxifolia is poised to persist and spread throughout the Baker Inlet-Port River estuary, potentially beyond its current confines. The industrial activity in this area continuously introduces nutrients via runoff and effluent discharge, fostering conditions conducive to the proliferation of this invasive species. Moreover, C. taxifolia thrives in environments with reduced light availability, which is often caused by elevated nutrient levels favoring algal growth (Deveney et al., 2008). Anthropogenic practices, like the release of carbon dioxide, contribute to ocean acidification which further exacerbates this issue, with increased acidity and temperatures promoting the optimal growth of C. taxifolia (Guinotte & Fabry, 2008 & Nielsen et al., 2018). Since the 1880s, Australia’s surface waters have become thirty percent more acidic (CSIRO & Bureau of Meteorology, 2022). A report found that C. taxifolia exhibits faster growth rates in more acidic ocean environments under higher temperatures (Kang et al., 2021 & Roth‐Schulze et al., 2018).
Despite the bleak future prospects for this invasive species, discussed above, there are promising discoveries and ongoing efforts in prevention and containment. Recent studies have revealed that the impacts of Caulerpa taxifolia are not as dire as initially feared. Contrary to the original consensus that C. taxifolia would overtake seagrass beds, it is now believed that it predominantly grows on the periphery of these beds (Caulerpa taxifolia, 2024). There will still be challenges if the species continues to grow unchecked, but there has been a recent surge in the development of eradication methods. The application of salt has been found to be a preferred management option, mainly because of its ease, efficacy, low cost, and low environmental impact (Wiltshire & Deveney, 2017 & Williams & Grosholz, 2008). Specifically, this species was found to stop growing at around twenty-two PSU and salinity under twenty PSU is lethal. Despite the persistence of climate conditions conducive to the optimal growth of the invasive species Caulerpa taxifolia due to the lack of emission reduction, there has been a shift towards a deeper understanding of this species, coupled with increased management efforts. These developments offer promising prospects for limiting its negative impacts.
Despite the bleak future prospects for this invasive species, discussed above, there are promising discoveries and ongoing efforts in prevention and containment. Recent studies have revealed that the impacts of Caulerpa taxifolia are not as dire as initially feared. Contrary to the original consensus that C. taxifolia would overtake seagrass beds, it is now believed that it predominantly grows on the periphery of these beds (Caulerpa taxifolia, 2024). There will still be challenges if the species continues to grow unchecked, but there has been a recent surge in the development of eradication methods. The application of salt has been found to be a preferred management option, mainly because of its ease, efficacy, low cost, and low environmental impact (Wiltshire & Deveney, 2017 & Williams & Grosholz, 2008). Specifically, this species was found to stop growing at around twenty-two PSU and salinity under twenty PSU is lethal. Despite the persistence of climate conditions conducive to the optimal growth of the invasive species Caulerpa taxifolia due to the lack of emission reduction, there has been a shift towards a deeper understanding of this species, coupled with increased management efforts. These developments offer promising prospects for limiting its negative impacts.
References
Bell, P. (2012). History of Torrens Island. https://www.academia.edu/21902238/History_of_Torrens_Island
Bloomfield, A. L., & Gillanders, B. M. (2005). Fish and invertebrate assemblages in seagrass, mangrove, saltmarsh, and nonvegetated habitats. Estuaries, 28(1), 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02732754
Bourman, B., Harvey, N., & Bryars, S. (2010). Catchments and Waterways. Wakefield Press, 65–86.
Burfeind, D., O’Brien, K., & Udy, J. (2013). Water temperature and benthic light levels drive horizontal expansion of Caulerpa taxifolia in native and invasive locations. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 472, 61–72. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10044
Caulerpa taxifolia. (2024, March 12). [Web page]. Department of Primary Industries Website - NSW Design System; scheme=AGLSTERMS.AglsAgent; corporateName=DPI NSW; https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/dpi/bfs/aquatic-biosecurity/aquatic-pests-and-diseases/marine-pests/seaweed/caulerpa-taxifolia
Creese, R. G., Davis, A. R., & Glasby, T. M. (2004). Eradicating and preventing the spread of the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia in NSW. NSW Department of Primary Industries.
CSIRO & Bureau of Meteorology. (2022). State of the Climate 2022. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization. https://www.csiro.au/en/research/environmental-impacts/climate-change/State-of-the-Climate
Deveney, M. R., Rowling, K. P., Wiltshire, K. H., Fernandes, M. B., Collings, G. J., Tanner, J. E., & Manning, C. E. (2008). Caulerpa taxifolia (M. Vahl) C. Agardh: Environmental risk assessment. SARDI Aquatic Sciences Publication.
Glasby, T. M. (2013). Caulerpa taxifolia in seagrass meadows: Killer or opportunistic weed? Biological Invasions, 15(5), 1017–1035. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-012-0347-1
Guinotte, J. M., & Fabry, V. J. (2008). Ocean Acidification and Its Potential Effects on Marine Ecosystems. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1134(1), 320–342. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1439.013
Heyes, S. (1999). The Kaurna Calendar: Seasons of the Adelaide Plains. The University of Adelaide.
J. Morelli. (1995). Australian Wetlands Database—Directory Wetland Information Sheet. Australian Government Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water; jurisdiction=Commonwealth of Australia; corporateName=Department of the Environment. https://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/wetlands/report.pl
Johnston, G., & Harbison, P. (2005). The Barker Inlet-Port River estuary. In Urban Ecological Communities 3.
Jones, G., Baker, J., Edyvane, K., & Wright, G. (1996). Nearshore fish community of the Port River-Barker Inlet Estuary, South Australia. I. Effect of thermal effluent on the fish community structure, and distribution and growth of economically important fish species. Marine and Freshwater Research, 47(6), 785. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF9960785
Kang, E. J., Lee, S., Kang, J., Moon, H., Kim, I.-N., & Kim, J.-H. (2021). Performance of a Potentially Invasive Species of Ornamental Seaweed Caulerpa sertularioides in Acidifying and Warming Oceans. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 9(12), 1368. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9121368
Kluser, S., Giuliani, G., De Bono, A., & Peduzzi, P. (2004). Caulerpa taxifolia, a growing menace for the temperate marine environment. UNEP.
Nielsen, K., Stachowicz, J., Carter, H., Boyer, K., Bracken, M., Chan, F., Chavez, F., Hovel, K., Kent, M., Nickols, K., Ruesink, J., Tyburczy, J., & Wheeler, S. (2018). Emerging understanding of seagrass and kelp as an ocean acidification management tool in California. California Ocean Science Trust.
Overton, I. (1993). Mangrove Degradation Associated with Seagrass Loss and Shoreline Sediment Changes Adjacent to the Bolivar Sewage Outflow Region, South Australia. University of Adelaide.
Rachel French. (1999). Modelling Urban Runoff Volume and Pollutant Concentration of the Barker Inlet Wetland Catchment. The University of Adelaide Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering.
Roth‐Schulze, A. J., Thomas, T., Steinberg, P., Deveney, M. R., Tanner, J. E., Wiltshire, K. H., Papantoniou, S., Runcie, J. W., & Gurgel, C. F. D. (2018). The effects of warming and ocean acidification on growth, photosynthesis, and bacterial communities for the marine invasive macroalga Caulerpa taxifolia. Limnology and Oceanography, 63(1), 459–471. https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.10739
Short, A. D. (2012). Adelaide Beach Management 1836–2025. In J. A. G. Cooper & O. H. Pilkey (Eds.), Pitfalls of Shoreline Stabilization (Vol. 3, pp. 15–36). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4123-2_2
Tanner, J. E. (2011). Utilisation of the Invasive Alga Caulerpa taxifolia as Habitat by Faunal Assemblages in the Port River–Barker Inlet Estuary, South Australia. Estuaries and Coasts, 34(4), 831–838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-010-9370-6
Williams, S. L., & Grosholz, E. D. (2008). The Invasive Species Challenge in Estuarine and Coastal Environments: Marrying Management and Science. Estuaries and Coasts, 31(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-007-9031-6
Wiltshire, K. H., & Deveney, M. R. (2017). The introduced alga Caulerpa taxifolia in South Australia: Infestation boundary surveys and feasibility control for populations outside the containment area (946). South Australian Research & Development Institute SARDI.
Bloomfield, A. L., & Gillanders, B. M. (2005). Fish and invertebrate assemblages in seagrass, mangrove, saltmarsh, and nonvegetated habitats. Estuaries, 28(1), 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02732754
Bourman, B., Harvey, N., & Bryars, S. (2010). Catchments and Waterways. Wakefield Press, 65–86.
Burfeind, D., O’Brien, K., & Udy, J. (2013). Water temperature and benthic light levels drive horizontal expansion of Caulerpa taxifolia in native and invasive locations. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 472, 61–72. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10044
Caulerpa taxifolia. (2024, March 12). [Web page]. Department of Primary Industries Website - NSW Design System; scheme=AGLSTERMS.AglsAgent; corporateName=DPI NSW; https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/dpi/bfs/aquatic-biosecurity/aquatic-pests-and-diseases/marine-pests/seaweed/caulerpa-taxifolia
Creese, R. G., Davis, A. R., & Glasby, T. M. (2004). Eradicating and preventing the spread of the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia in NSW. NSW Department of Primary Industries.
CSIRO & Bureau of Meteorology. (2022). State of the Climate 2022. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization. https://www.csiro.au/en/research/environmental-impacts/climate-change/State-of-the-Climate
Deveney, M. R., Rowling, K. P., Wiltshire, K. H., Fernandes, M. B., Collings, G. J., Tanner, J. E., & Manning, C. E. (2008). Caulerpa taxifolia (M. Vahl) C. Agardh: Environmental risk assessment. SARDI Aquatic Sciences Publication.
Glasby, T. M. (2013). Caulerpa taxifolia in seagrass meadows: Killer or opportunistic weed? Biological Invasions, 15(5), 1017–1035. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-012-0347-1
Guinotte, J. M., & Fabry, V. J. (2008). Ocean Acidification and Its Potential Effects on Marine Ecosystems. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1134(1), 320–342. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1439.013
Heyes, S. (1999). The Kaurna Calendar: Seasons of the Adelaide Plains. The University of Adelaide.
J. Morelli. (1995). Australian Wetlands Database—Directory Wetland Information Sheet. Australian Government Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water; jurisdiction=Commonwealth of Australia; corporateName=Department of the Environment. https://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/wetlands/report.pl
Johnston, G., & Harbison, P. (2005). The Barker Inlet-Port River estuary. In Urban Ecological Communities 3.
Jones, G., Baker, J., Edyvane, K., & Wright, G. (1996). Nearshore fish community of the Port River-Barker Inlet Estuary, South Australia. I. Effect of thermal effluent on the fish community structure, and distribution and growth of economically important fish species. Marine and Freshwater Research, 47(6), 785. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF9960785
Kang, E. J., Lee, S., Kang, J., Moon, H., Kim, I.-N., & Kim, J.-H. (2021). Performance of a Potentially Invasive Species of Ornamental Seaweed Caulerpa sertularioides in Acidifying and Warming Oceans. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 9(12), 1368. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9121368
Kluser, S., Giuliani, G., De Bono, A., & Peduzzi, P. (2004). Caulerpa taxifolia, a growing menace for the temperate marine environment. UNEP.
Nielsen, K., Stachowicz, J., Carter, H., Boyer, K., Bracken, M., Chan, F., Chavez, F., Hovel, K., Kent, M., Nickols, K., Ruesink, J., Tyburczy, J., & Wheeler, S. (2018). Emerging understanding of seagrass and kelp as an ocean acidification management tool in California. California Ocean Science Trust.
Overton, I. (1993). Mangrove Degradation Associated with Seagrass Loss and Shoreline Sediment Changes Adjacent to the Bolivar Sewage Outflow Region, South Australia. University of Adelaide.
Rachel French. (1999). Modelling Urban Runoff Volume and Pollutant Concentration of the Barker Inlet Wetland Catchment. The University of Adelaide Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering.
Roth‐Schulze, A. J., Thomas, T., Steinberg, P., Deveney, M. R., Tanner, J. E., Wiltshire, K. H., Papantoniou, S., Runcie, J. W., & Gurgel, C. F. D. (2018). The effects of warming and ocean acidification on growth, photosynthesis, and bacterial communities for the marine invasive macroalga Caulerpa taxifolia. Limnology and Oceanography, 63(1), 459–471. https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.10739
Short, A. D. (2012). Adelaide Beach Management 1836–2025. In J. A. G. Cooper & O. H. Pilkey (Eds.), Pitfalls of Shoreline Stabilization (Vol. 3, pp. 15–36). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4123-2_2
Tanner, J. E. (2011). Utilisation of the Invasive Alga Caulerpa taxifolia as Habitat by Faunal Assemblages in the Port River–Barker Inlet Estuary, South Australia. Estuaries and Coasts, 34(4), 831–838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-010-9370-6
Williams, S. L., & Grosholz, E. D. (2008). The Invasive Species Challenge in Estuarine and Coastal Environments: Marrying Management and Science. Estuaries and Coasts, 31(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-007-9031-6
Wiltshire, K. H., & Deveney, M. R. (2017). The introduced alga Caulerpa taxifolia in South Australia: Infestation boundary surveys and feasibility control for populations outside the containment area (946). South Australian Research & Development Institute SARDI.