Wolf Rewilding in the Eastern Italian Alps
Jamie Ball and Ellie Haagsman
Summary
Wolves are important apex predators in the European Alps because they help control red and roe deer populations which, in turn, allows vegetation to flourish. Historically, wolves were extirpated from many parts of the Alps by farmers and hunters due to competition over livestock and the perceived threat by the public. The Eastern Italian Alp wolf populations have struggled the most to recover, despite strict conservation laws, primarily due to poor connectivity to other populations in the Alps. Anthropogenic land use change has been a key barrier for connecting wolf populations to increase both numbers and genetic diversity in the Eastern Italian Alps. Presently, Rewilding Europe is partnering with an Italian conservation organization called Io Non Ho Paura Del Lupo to help rewild wolves in the Eastern Italian Alps. This case study will provide information regarding the general Eastern Alps as well as the specific case study site of the Eastern Italian Alps, in order to give context to the broad issue and the current project in place to increase biodiversity of wolves in the region. |
ECOLOGICAL GENEALOGY
Anthropogenic land use change is a significant factor that has altered the entire European Alps and its ecological structure and function (Kulakowski, Bebi & Rixen, 2011). Historically, forestry was an important part of the economy in the European Alps; however, tourism is now the key economic sector (Garbarino et al., 2013; European Environment Agency, 2016). Forest uses included wood pasture as well as forest litter collecting and livestock grazing, depending on the elevation of the landscape (Garbarino et al., 2013). In the past century, the European Alps (seen in figure 1) have experienced considerable land use change as a result of deserted agricultural lands (Kulakowski et al., 2011). The abandonment of these lands has led to more pastures being converted into forests (Kulakowski et al., 2011; Garbarino et al., 2013). However, an adverse consequence of this forest expansion is the reduced range of diverse grasslands traditionally maintained in the past (Garbarino et al., 2013). Further, Orlandi et al. (2016) state that this decline in grasslands has resulted in “loss of many ecosystem services, such as the capability to produce food, to preserve biodiversity, cultural heritage and landscape attractiveness” (p. 276). On the other hand, forest integrity is important for these alpine landscapes, especially in the face of the impacts of ungulate browsing.
Forested Alpine landscapes comprise European larch (Larix decidua) (Garbarino et al., 2013), rowan (Sorbus aucuparia L.), and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) (Motta, 2003). According to Garbarino et al. (2013) larch forests are “cultural landscapes that have been shaped by humans for centuries through traditional management” (p. 805). Mountain forests are especially susceptible to browsing damage because of climatic and seed production factors (Motta, 2003). The landscape in the Eastern Italian Alps (figure 3) has been severely altered by ungulate browsing because there are inadequate predator populations controlling red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) populations (Motta, 2003). The Eastern Italian Alps fall within the entire Alpine range (figure 1); however, the landscape is poorly connected to other ranges which reduces the number of predators, thus increasing ungulate density.
Wolves (Canis lupus), as seen in figure 2, perform significant roles within ecosystems (Randi, 2011). These apex predators help maintain the structure and functions of natural landscapes by regulating populations of their prey, and therefore cause cascading effects in ungulate and plant communities (Randi, 2011). In the past, wolves once covered all of Europe (Randi, 2011) and have been feared and perceived as a threat to livestock and hunting (Breitenmoser, 1998). Historically, the objective for extirpating wolves was taken so seriously that agricultural communities placed bounties for the killing of these predators (Breitenmoser, 1998). Despite the current lawful protection of wolves in the European Alps, this fear-based perspective towards wolves still exists for many individuals. Wolves conflict with farmers over the consumption of livestock, and create competition with deer hunters (Randi, 2011). In addition to direct competition with humans, deforestation and land conversion are also significant contributors to the decline of wolf populations in the European Alps (Breitenmoser, 1998).
Wolf populations throughout the Alps declined in the 18th and 19th centuries (Fabbri et al., 2007). In the 1970s, the population of wolves in Italy reached an unprecedented low of 100 individuals (Gazzola et al., 2007). However, from 1970 to 1990 the numbers of Italian wolves began to rise once again due to federal protection laws for conserving wolves (Gazzola et al., 2007). Further, in 1990 the estimated population in the entirety of the Italian Alps was between 500 to 1000 wolves (Gazzola et al., 2007). Though general wolf populations for the entire Italian Alps can be estimated, it is difficult to estimate populations specific to the East because of their movement and range. Conserving wolf populations in the Eastern Italian Alps, and the entire Alpine range is important because wolves contribute to ungulate population control, which leads to cascading effects on vegetation (Randi, 2011).
PRESENT TENSE
Presently, human settlement and poor connectivity to the Central and Western Alps means there are relatively low numbers of wolves in the Eastern Alps as compared to the rest of the European Alps (Schnidrig et al., 2016). The main threats to wolves in the Eastern Italian Alps are: fatal accidents with cars and trains, as well as unlawful killings (Life WolfAlps, 2018). Many farmers have settled in the lowlands of the Alps to raise livestock which has led to competition with the wild wolves. Historically, this competition led to the extirpation of the wolves. Today, there is substantially less animosity from the farmers. A 2011 study discovered that wolves predate on the abundant populations of wild boar, roe deer, and red deer, which result in a decreased predation on livestock (Meriggi et al., 2011). The results from this study may be a key to encouraging the coexistence of farmers and wolves. Beyond the settlement of farmers, tourism plays a role in the demand for landscape management and development that can pose a physical barrier to the movement of wolf populations (Schnidrig et al., 2016).
Today, the wolf is a strictly protected species in the Eastern Alps. The movement for their protection began in 1970, resulting in the removal of the wolf as a recognized “harmful species,” which prohibited hunting and use of poisoned bait in 1976 (Life WolfAlps, 2018). During the Berne Convention on the conservation of European wildlife in 1979, the wolf was designated as a “strictly protected species” and a “species of community interest in need of strict protection,” designations that continue to this day (Life WolfAlps, 2018). Despite the protection laws, the wolf population in this region has not been able to expand widely due to the lack of connectivity to the Central and Western Alps. A number of lakes and human settlements in the Central Alps pose a barrier to population expansion, resulting in low population numbers and low genetic variability (Marucco & Mclintire, 2010).
Rewilding Europe aims to return nature, wildlife, and natural processes back to Europe. It is partnered with Io Non Ho Paura Del Lupo, an Italian conservation organization with the objective to conserve the wild wolf population by engaging with stakeholders to improve human-wolf relations and awareness (Io Non Ho Paura Del Lupo, 2018). Io Non Ho Paura Del Lupo was established in 2016, and initiated its return of the wolf project in 2018. The project site area for rewilding the wolves can be seen in figure 3. The organization is presently conversing with over 20,000 stakeholders through different media channels, and intends to create “peaceful human-wolf coexistence” (Rewilding Europe, 2018). The organization's main goals are to raise awareness about the misconceptions of wolves in the Eastern Italian Alps, monitor the wolf population, establish acceptance of coexistence with the surrounding public, and encourage and promote sustainable tourism (Rewilding Europe, 2018). Raising public awareness about the nature of wolves and their benefit to the surrounding landscape will likely be one of the primary actions taken for conserving the Eastern Italian Alps wolf population for the future.
Today, the wolf is a strictly protected species in the Eastern Alps. The movement for their protection began in 1970, resulting in the removal of the wolf as a recognized “harmful species,” which prohibited hunting and use of poisoned bait in 1976 (Life WolfAlps, 2018). During the Berne Convention on the conservation of European wildlife in 1979, the wolf was designated as a “strictly protected species” and a “species of community interest in need of strict protection,” designations that continue to this day (Life WolfAlps, 2018). Despite the protection laws, the wolf population in this region has not been able to expand widely due to the lack of connectivity to the Central and Western Alps. A number of lakes and human settlements in the Central Alps pose a barrier to population expansion, resulting in low population numbers and low genetic variability (Marucco & Mclintire, 2010).
Rewilding Europe aims to return nature, wildlife, and natural processes back to Europe. It is partnered with Io Non Ho Paura Del Lupo, an Italian conservation organization with the objective to conserve the wild wolf population by engaging with stakeholders to improve human-wolf relations and awareness (Io Non Ho Paura Del Lupo, 2018). Io Non Ho Paura Del Lupo was established in 2016, and initiated its return of the wolf project in 2018. The project site area for rewilding the wolves can be seen in figure 3. The organization is presently conversing with over 20,000 stakeholders through different media channels, and intends to create “peaceful human-wolf coexistence” (Rewilding Europe, 2018). The organization's main goals are to raise awareness about the misconceptions of wolves in the Eastern Italian Alps, monitor the wolf population, establish acceptance of coexistence with the surrounding public, and encourage and promote sustainable tourism (Rewilding Europe, 2018). Raising public awareness about the nature of wolves and their benefit to the surrounding landscape will likely be one of the primary actions taken for conserving the Eastern Italian Alps wolf population for the future.
FUTURE TRAJECTORIES
All across Europe, there are controversial views about the status and future conservation of wolves. Countries such as Norway, France, and Germany all practice the culling of wolf populations to ensure low numbers and satisfy the majority of citizens who fear wolves (Barkham, 2018). Although there is extensive support by farmers on the culling of wolf populations around Europe, this is countered by conservation groups (Barkham, 2018). Ingrid Lomele, the conservation representative for WWF Norway, stated that continually culling the wolf population down to a critically endangered level is wrong (Barkham, 2018). Wolf conservation advocacy is continuing to develop around Europe, and is evident in the projects being conducted by Rewilding Europe and Io Non Ho Paura Del Lupo. Italy remains one of the countries with the strictest laws on wolf protection in Europe, which will hopefully lead to population expansion, conservation, and coexistence in the territory.
Uncertainty remains over the peaceful coexistence between humans and wolves if the populations should grow and expand with successful conservation measures. This expansion trajectory may be more of a concern in the Central and Western Alps because there is more connectivity, “in the Eastern part of the Alps, wolf densities will remain very low due to low probabilities of finding a mate, even with long distance dispersals” (Marucco & Mclintire, 2010, p. 6). It is difficult to predict population projections of wolves in the Eastern Alps because of their movement and lack of regular monitoring. One of the goals of Io Non Ho Paura Del Lupo is to initiate monitoring and data collection programs which can potentially determine current population estimates which will be useful for estimating future population projections as well (Io Non Ho Paura Del Lupo, 2018).
Although the rewilding of wolves in the Italian Alps is in its infancy, some scientists suggest increased control on red deer populations will be beneficial for the surrounding ecosystems (Schnidrig et al., 2016). In terms of trophic cascades, Ripple and Beschta (2012) state that “predators can indirectly affect plant communities by influencing prey behavior and density, thus releasing plants from herbivory” (p. 205). When wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park in 1995/96 after being absent from the area for seven decades, it resulted in reduced browsing intensity by ungulates and increased height for several shrubs and trees (Ripple & Beschta, 2012). Although the ecology and social realities of the Eastern Alps is different from Yellowstone National Park, there is potential for similar trophic cascades. Wolves repopulating in both landscapes is relatively new. With the passage of time and further research, more information will be uncovered regarding the impact wolves have on their environment.
Visions of rewilding may potentially be altered in the future considering the present anthropogenic forces in effect. Climate change is proving to effect the ranges of species worldwide, trending towards northern expansion (Welch, 2017). Additionally, human population increase and development has potential to further decrease landscape connectivity, acting as a barrier to wolf population expansion. Rewilding projects do not have known solutions, and are thus controversial within the environmental science community. However, witnessing the success of rewilding wolves in Yellowstone National Park gives hope that Rewilding Europe may be able to increase the wolf population in the Eastern Italian Alps, thus contributing to the overall biodiversity of the entire Alpine range.
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