Lionfish Invasion in the Caribbean and Western Atlantic Ecosystems
By Stuart Ferrie
Key Words: Lionfish, Invasive, Ecosystem, Management, Biodiversity
Summary
The history of invasions across the Caribbean and Western Atlantic offers a case study in which changes, ecological, cultural, and technological, often occur over multiple geographic scales, stack up over time. Failing to mention the fact that they disturb marine food webs and nutrient cycling, lionfish likely do damage to coral reefs and fisheries with their venomous spines and ardent appetites for smaller fish of many species. Current efforts at management include government regulation support and mechanisms through the communities. However, in case effective intervention is not put into place, the invasion by the lionfish is further projected because the risks the situation has already posed to the ecosystem are unprecedented. This invasion has transformed the coral reef ecosystem to which the lionfish invade into novel environments, which in turn change ecological dynamics and species compositions. This is the challenge that we have to take head-on: with very creative solutions, leading from the front, and most importantly, increasing awareness, get all the citizens aware of it.
Ecological Genealogy
The landscapes in the Caribbean and Western Atlantic are a result of many influences, including the needs and impacts of the environment, culture, and technology for hundreds of years. These regions have historically had extensive and diverse ecosystems now found to be intact and somewhat elevated. Coral once covered and exposed whole coastlines; the mangroves that face the coastal areas provided a critical habitat for the nursery ground for fish and protect from storms and erosion (Morgan et al., 2022). There were seagrass meadows that existed to provide a habitat and food for diversity in marine species. The scenario, however, took an altogether turn of events by the 16th century with the coming of European colonizers. There were harsh deforestations done to provide timber to meet the insatiable needs of Europeans and create space for agriculture. This consequently led to habitats losses and change of hydrological cycles (Morgan et al., 2022). In the 20th century, industrialization developed on a rampantly increasing phase, with the pressure on overfishing, urbanization, and the utilization of natural resources. Species started being destroyed due to kinds of technology and extenuated with fish populations that devastated marine food webs (Morgan et al., 2022). Changes are observed in the quality of water because of pollution through industrial activities and coastal developments coupled with climate change, which finally started to pressurize with bleaching events.
In this respect, lionfish, members of the genus Pterois, have exploded as phenomenal yet alien species in the Caribbean region and in the Western Atlantic. These regions are Belize, the Bahamas and Southern Florida (Morgan et al., 2022). Lionfish are venomous fishes possessing toxic dorsal, pelvic, and anal spines that can be used as formidable weapons in case of predation and while hunting ((Ramalingam, 2021)). They have the red, white, and brown striping along their elongated fin rays with venomous spines that set them apart (Albins & Hixon, 2013). Ecologically, the lionfish exhibits diet generalist feeding behavior, feeding on over 70 species of fishes and invertebrates, ranging across all trophic levels (Lesser & Slattery, 2011). The lionfish diet may allow them to exploit a wide range of prey likely to be contributors to the success of invasive predators. Secondly, lionfish have high reproductive potential, with a single female releasing tens of thousands of buoyant pelagic eggs at one time (Albins & Hixon, 2013). Invasive populations also often have a high reproductive output, making them able to grow rapidly and increase their invasive potential in new habitats. |
Present Conditions
This infusion of lionfish continues to plague the ecosystems of Caribbean and West Atlantic coral reefs, increasing the seriousness and magnitude of this ecological and immense socio-economic problem. These waters are dominated by potent and venomous Lionfish species like Pterois volitans, and Pterois miles. The main categories of prey include the juveniles of reef fishes, plus animals such as crustaceans and other invertebrates. Native fishes, especially species that are herbivorous, also suffer heavy declines due to lionfish predation.
The continuous outbreak of the invasion of lionfish has continued to greatly interrupt some of the key ecological processes, especially in the marine food webs, and aggravated the nutrient cycling within the invaded ecosystems (Del Río et al., 2023). With the reduced number of the herbivorous fishes to graze on the algae, the growth of the algal is noted to increase, mostly on the coral surfaces. The other serious threat that may arise is that uncontrolled proliferation of algae in the reef may seriously pose a threat to the health and integrity of the coral reef ecosystem (Del Río et al., 2023). Lionfish also have indirect implications for hydrological processes. Low numbers of herbivorous fish species terminally relate to increased algal growth, but in case the biomass is not consumed, it may decay and be subjected to transport off the reef instead of the food source for the small herbivorous fish communities (Del Río et al., 2023). These would simply mean differential cycling of nutrients, which could mean some changes within water quality parameters, ecological changes from the invasion but likely to a lesser degree in terms of nutrient concentrations and oxygen levels. The invasion has been profound for communities along the coast where marine production is the primary source of livelihood. Catches are substantially reduced, affecting food deficits for communities that subsist on a commercially valuable species; in such cases, the communities of San Pedro, Belize; Nassau, Bahamas; and St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, create a paradigm whereby their economic livelihood is significantly challenged (Lesser & Slattery, 2011). The marine ecosystems conservation effort and the management of the marine resources are generally the domain of the government departments with regulatory authorities. The aims of the many aims where the establishment of the marine reserves and protected areas at countries like Belize and the Bahamas are to some form of the protection to the marine biodiversity and also provision for the fishery exploitation are safeguarded (Morris & Whitfield, 2009). Many the customary rights of local communities do, therefore, enjoy and may also have some form of the management authority within certain marine areas or the aspects (Hays et al., 2019). Two strategies have been suggested to be in use over control and management: community control and government input. Some of such activities (Morris & Whitfield, 2009) that fall on the community control include monitoring, culling and sensitization on lionfish. Government input is in terms of formulation of regulations and participation on enforcement meant for control of spread and population of fish in mechanisms whereby they impact on. |
Future Trajectory
The projection of this invading lionfish predicament in the Caribbean and western Atlantic realms is highly distressing; predictions show a sharp upward trend if concerted efforts in addressing ways of control are not integrated in the approaches. Such predictions by scientists showed that lionfish biomass is enlarging by twenty times more than the current size before 2025, creating peril of unprecedented level to the ecosystem. Basically, the invasive species pose a very real risk of totally taking over an environ with nothing but coral reefs, characterized by an enormous amount of biodiversity, within a short lapse, bringing it to an end without effective intervention.
The coral reef ecosystems were invaded by lionfish, which converted these to novel or designed by human ecosystems, hence radically changed more ecological dynamics and species composition from their past condition. Hostile as it gets, the lionfish, given their voracious predatory behavior, sends disruptions in complicated biochemical interactions and energy flows that are vital for coral reef health (Mumby et al., 2011). In this way, the effect is not only upon the studied region but has propensity to extend into neighboring ecosystems by modification of fish migration and changes in energy flows among the marine components.
There is an impact that a further lionfish invasion may inflict permanently to the structure and functioning of the coral reef habitats in a manner that ripples across the boundaries of these habitats, hence disrupting the inter-dependently connected ecological processes and dynamics, that determine the sustainability and fisheries production capacity of such larger coral reef eco-systems (Mumby et al., 2011). Other approaches used to deal with the invasion have included the development of an early warning system, restrictions in the invasive species in commerce, especially in the aquarium trade, and sustainable fisheries management practices with implications in a broader sensibility for the health and resilience of the regional ecosystem (Quintana et al., 2023). In this sense, the cooperation and novel solutions in matters of ecologic management and regional cooperation are part and necessary to attend the invasion of lionfish.
The coral reef ecosystems were invaded by lionfish, which converted these to novel or designed by human ecosystems, hence radically changed more ecological dynamics and species composition from their past condition. Hostile as it gets, the lionfish, given their voracious predatory behavior, sends disruptions in complicated biochemical interactions and energy flows that are vital for coral reef health (Mumby et al., 2011). In this way, the effect is not only upon the studied region but has propensity to extend into neighboring ecosystems by modification of fish migration and changes in energy flows among the marine components.
There is an impact that a further lionfish invasion may inflict permanently to the structure and functioning of the coral reef habitats in a manner that ripples across the boundaries of these habitats, hence disrupting the inter-dependently connected ecological processes and dynamics, that determine the sustainability and fisheries production capacity of such larger coral reef eco-systems (Mumby et al., 2011). Other approaches used to deal with the invasion have included the development of an early warning system, restrictions in the invasive species in commerce, especially in the aquarium trade, and sustainable fisheries management practices with implications in a broader sensibility for the health and resilience of the regional ecosystem (Quintana et al., 2023). In this sense, the cooperation and novel solutions in matters of ecologic management and regional cooperation are part and necessary to attend the invasion of lionfish.
References
Albins, M. A., & Hixon, M. A. (2013). Worst case scenario: potential long-term effects of invasive predatory lionfish (Pterois volitans) on Atlantic and Caribbean coral reef communities. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 96, 11511157. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225542945_Worst_case_scenario_Potential_longterm_effects_of_invasive_predatory_lionfish_Pterois_volitans_on_Atlantic_and_Caribbean_coralreef_communities
Chagaris, D., Binion Rock, S., Bogdanoff, A., Dahl, K., Granneman, J., Harris, H., ... & Allen, M. (2017). An ecosystem based approach to evaluating impacts and management of invasive lionfish. Fisheries, 42(8), 421431. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318979057_An_EcosystemBased_Approach_to_Evaluating_Impacts_and_Management_of_Invasive_Lionfish
Hays, G. C., Bailey, H., Bograd, S. J., Bowen, W. D., Campagna, C., Carmichael, R. H., Casale, P., Chiaradia, A., Costa, D. P., Cuevas, E., Nico de Bruyn, P. J., Dias, M. P., Duarte, C. M., Dunn, D. C., Dutton, P. H., Esteban, N., Friedlaender, A., Goetz, K. T., Godley, B. J., & Halpin, P. N. (2019). Translating Marine Animal Tracking Data into Conservation Policy and Management. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 34(5), 459–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2019.01.009
Lesser, M. P., & Slattery, M. (2011). Phase shift to algal dominated communities at mesophotic depths associated with lionfish (Pterois volitans) invasion on a Bahamian coral reef. Biological Invasions, 13, 18551868. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225387772_Phase_shift_to_algal_dominated_communities_at_mesophotic_depths_associated_with_lionfish_Pterois_volitans_invasion_on_a_Bahamian_coral_reef
Morgan, P. J., Morgan, P. D., McNeill, J. R., Mulcahy, M., & Schwartz, S. B. (2022). Sea and land: an environmental history of the Caribbean. Oxford University Press.
Morris Jr, J. A., & Whitfield, P. E. (2009). Biology, ecology, control and management of the invasive Indo-Pacific lionfish: an updated integrated assessment. https://aquadocs.org/bitstream/handle/1834/20632/NCCOS_TM_99.pdf
Mumby, P. J., Harborne, A. R., & Brumbaugh, D. R. (2011). Grouper as a natural biocontrol of invasive lionfish. PloS one, 6(6), e21510. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0021510
National Ocean Service. (2023). What is a lionfish? https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/lionfish-facts.html#:~:text=Identification%3A%20Lionfish%20have%20distinctive%20brown,6%2D7%20anal%20soft%20rays.
Nature Documentaries. (2014). Appetite for Extinction- Invasive Lionfish of the Bermuda. https://naturedocumentaries.org/5507/invasive-lionfish-tropical-atlantic-2013-ocean-research-foundation/
Quintana, A., Marcos, S., Malpica-Cruz, L., Tamayo, L., Canto Noh, J. Á., Fernández-Rivera Melo, F., & Fulton, S. (2023). Socioeconomic dilemmas of commercial markets for invasive species: lessons from lionfish in Mexico. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 80(1), 3139.https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/80/1/31/6884606
Ramalingam, K. (2021). Evaluation of the Pharmacological Properties of Piscine Venoms from both Lionfish (Pterois) and Stonefish (Synanceja). Current Enzyme Inhibition, 17(1), 915.
U.S. Geological Survey. (2021). Invasive Lionfish have now reached Brazil. https://lionfish.co/lionfish-in-brazil/
Chagaris, D., Binion Rock, S., Bogdanoff, A., Dahl, K., Granneman, J., Harris, H., ... & Allen, M. (2017). An ecosystem based approach to evaluating impacts and management of invasive lionfish. Fisheries, 42(8), 421431. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318979057_An_EcosystemBased_Approach_to_Evaluating_Impacts_and_Management_of_Invasive_Lionfish
Hays, G. C., Bailey, H., Bograd, S. J., Bowen, W. D., Campagna, C., Carmichael, R. H., Casale, P., Chiaradia, A., Costa, D. P., Cuevas, E., Nico de Bruyn, P. J., Dias, M. P., Duarte, C. M., Dunn, D. C., Dutton, P. H., Esteban, N., Friedlaender, A., Goetz, K. T., Godley, B. J., & Halpin, P. N. (2019). Translating Marine Animal Tracking Data into Conservation Policy and Management. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 34(5), 459–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2019.01.009
Lesser, M. P., & Slattery, M. (2011). Phase shift to algal dominated communities at mesophotic depths associated with lionfish (Pterois volitans) invasion on a Bahamian coral reef. Biological Invasions, 13, 18551868. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225387772_Phase_shift_to_algal_dominated_communities_at_mesophotic_depths_associated_with_lionfish_Pterois_volitans_invasion_on_a_Bahamian_coral_reef
Morgan, P. J., Morgan, P. D., McNeill, J. R., Mulcahy, M., & Schwartz, S. B. (2022). Sea and land: an environmental history of the Caribbean. Oxford University Press.
Morris Jr, J. A., & Whitfield, P. E. (2009). Biology, ecology, control and management of the invasive Indo-Pacific lionfish: an updated integrated assessment. https://aquadocs.org/bitstream/handle/1834/20632/NCCOS_TM_99.pdf
Mumby, P. J., Harborne, A. R., & Brumbaugh, D. R. (2011). Grouper as a natural biocontrol of invasive lionfish. PloS one, 6(6), e21510. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0021510
National Ocean Service. (2023). What is a lionfish? https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/lionfish-facts.html#:~:text=Identification%3A%20Lionfish%20have%20distinctive%20brown,6%2D7%20anal%20soft%20rays.
Nature Documentaries. (2014). Appetite for Extinction- Invasive Lionfish of the Bermuda. https://naturedocumentaries.org/5507/invasive-lionfish-tropical-atlantic-2013-ocean-research-foundation/
Quintana, A., Marcos, S., Malpica-Cruz, L., Tamayo, L., Canto Noh, J. Á., Fernández-Rivera Melo, F., & Fulton, S. (2023). Socioeconomic dilemmas of commercial markets for invasive species: lessons from lionfish in Mexico. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 80(1), 3139.https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/80/1/31/6884606
Ramalingam, K. (2021). Evaluation of the Pharmacological Properties of Piscine Venoms from both Lionfish (Pterois) and Stonefish (Synanceja). Current Enzyme Inhibition, 17(1), 915.
U.S. Geological Survey. (2021). Invasive Lionfish have now reached Brazil. https://lionfish.co/lionfish-in-brazil/