Rewilding a Post-War Ecosystem:
Gorongosa National Park
MacKenzie Rosene
Summary
Gorongosa National Park, located in the heart of Mozambique, has a long and complex history of conflict that has continued to impact the park to present day. After a 16 year long civil war that ravaged the landscape and robbed the park of its wildlife, Gorongosa National Park is starting to make a comeback with the help of the Mozambican government and tech mogul turned philanthropist Gregg Carr’s nonprofit organization, Gorongosa Restoration Project. Conservation and restoration scientists are hard at work at reintroducing native animals to the park, recording biodiversity, rebuilding and strengthening social ties, as well as preparing the park for future impacts from tourism and climate change. While not every effort thus far has been a success, there is hope that Gorongosa National Park will regain its former splendor.
From https://www.joelsartore.com/sce055-00011/
Ecological genealogy
Nestled in the heart of Mozambique, Gorongosa National Park (GNP) has a long and complex history that continues to impact the park to present day. Mozambique was colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century (Newitt, 1995), and became a major centre for the slavery and ivory (14) trade in the 18th and 19th century (13). Despite outlawing slavery in 1842, Portugal remained a heavy presence in the country (13). To provide entertainment and promote tourism for the western world (10) and celebrities (Figure 1.), the Portuguese government established a fenceless park (1), GNP, in 1920 (19). At the time, the park was 1000km^2, but expanded to 3200km^2 in 1935 (19), and again in 1960 to become a total of 5300 km^2. In 1964 the War of Independence began and lasted until 1975, ending in Mozambique attaining separate nationhood (13). The park was reduced to 3770 km^2 in 1966 to give back land to the local farmers that had been forced out during the park’s establishment (19). In 1969, Dr. Kenneth Tinley conducted the first aerial survey of the park (19). He and his team counted 200 lions (Panthera leo), 2200 elephants
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Figure 1. A historic photo of a pride of lions cooling in the shade as tourists observe from their van. From http://www.gorongosa.org/explore-park/gallery?page=1
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(Loxodonta africana), 14000 buffalo (Syncerus caffer), 5500 wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), 3000 zebra (Equus quagga crawshayi), 3500 waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), 2000 impala (Aepyceros melampus), 3500 hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius), and herds of eland (Taurotragus oryx), sable (Hippotragus niger), and hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus) numbering more than five hundred (20). A final aerial survey was completed in the beginning of 1976, finding more elephants and lions than previous records (19).
1976 also marked the start of a 16 year civil war (9). The War of Independence, ending 2 years prior, left unresolved internal conflicts between Frelimo (Marxist) and Renamo (anti-communist) supporters (9). Unlike the previous war, the Civil war was fought directly within GNP and on Mount Gorongosa (19). Over one million people were killed during this horrific period, and the damage to the wildlife was profound (19). Many large animals were hunted as food for soldiers, and elephant ivory was traded for weapons in South Africa (22). Even after the battle was over, professional hunters took advantage of the country’s weakness and continued to slaughter animals from the park until their populations had been reduced by over 90% (19). There were efforts to rebuild the park in 1994, however, the damage required a far higher financial investment (19). It was also at this time that the first post war aerial survey was conducted, finding only 100 elephants, 300 reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), 100 waterbuck (Figure 2.), and a handful of zebra and small antelope (19). Most large grazers and predators, such as leopards (Panthera pardus), hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and jackals (Canis adults) (7) were extirpated from the park (7). Bird and reptile populations appeared to be unchanged (1).
In 2004 Gregg Carr visited GNP and quickly recognized the need to restore GNP (19). His non-profit organization, the Gorongosa Restoration Project (GRP), teamed up with the Mozambican government to begin the rewilding efforts. Using Tinley’s (1977) original suggestions, they began by building a 62km^2 fenced area to help relocated animals adjust to the new environment (19). Between 2006-2018, hundreds of animals were relocated from neighboring parks into GNP (19). In addition, schools and clinics were built for the people living in and around the park, and destroyed tourist attractions were rebuilt (19). 2007 marked the first year that lions were seen in their old stomping grounds, the ‘lion house,’ since 1960, and aerial surveys were showing a rise in species numbers (19). In 2010 Mount Gorongosa was added to the park, making the park 4067km^2, with an additional 3300km^2 community/park shared buffer zone (15). The mountain’s inclusion made occupancy illegal above 700m, and for the 2000 people living there, the decision was not well received (21).
1976 also marked the start of a 16 year civil war (9). The War of Independence, ending 2 years prior, left unresolved internal conflicts between Frelimo (Marxist) and Renamo (anti-communist) supporters (9). Unlike the previous war, the Civil war was fought directly within GNP and on Mount Gorongosa (19). Over one million people were killed during this horrific period, and the damage to the wildlife was profound (19). Many large animals were hunted as food for soldiers, and elephant ivory was traded for weapons in South Africa (22). Even after the battle was over, professional hunters took advantage of the country’s weakness and continued to slaughter animals from the park until their populations had been reduced by over 90% (19). There were efforts to rebuild the park in 1994, however, the damage required a far higher financial investment (19). It was also at this time that the first post war aerial survey was conducted, finding only 100 elephants, 300 reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), 100 waterbuck (Figure 2.), and a handful of zebra and small antelope (19). Most large grazers and predators, such as leopards (Panthera pardus), hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and jackals (Canis adults) (7) were extirpated from the park (7). Bird and reptile populations appeared to be unchanged (1).
In 2004 Gregg Carr visited GNP and quickly recognized the need to restore GNP (19). His non-profit organization, the Gorongosa Restoration Project (GRP), teamed up with the Mozambican government to begin the rewilding efforts. Using Tinley’s (1977) original suggestions, they began by building a 62km^2 fenced area to help relocated animals adjust to the new environment (19). Between 2006-2018, hundreds of animals were relocated from neighboring parks into GNP (19). In addition, schools and clinics were built for the people living in and around the park, and destroyed tourist attractions were rebuilt (19). 2007 marked the first year that lions were seen in their old stomping grounds, the ‘lion house,’ since 1960, and aerial surveys were showing a rise in species numbers (19). In 2010 Mount Gorongosa was added to the park, making the park 4067km^2, with an additional 3300km^2 community/park shared buffer zone (15). The mountain’s inclusion made occupancy illegal above 700m, and for the 2000 people living there, the decision was not well received (21).
Present Tense
Presently, GNP is beginning to show signs of regaining its pre-war biodiversity splendor. A 2018 aerial survey found that the average biomass was 9600kg/km^2, similar to the pre-war conditions (18). They also counted a total of 100,409 individual herbivores from 19 different species, more than 2000 crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), 219 baboon (Papio cynocephalus) troops, a few sightings of the rare side-striped jackel, and much more (18). The total species count found in the park has risen from 1122 species in 2012, to a staggering 5,723 species (15). In addition, the reestablishment of the mammals has also recovered their ecological role as seed dispersers, one study finding a higher density of seeds in animal dung inside the park than outside (5). Vegetation in the alpine forest, montane meadow, woodland savannah, grassland, scrub forest, and rain forest ecosystems (1) are becoming more diverse and
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Figure 2. A heard of Waterbuck looking for predators in Gorongosa National Park’s grasslands. From http://www.gorongosa.org/explore-park/gallery?page=1
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controlled due to successional grazing by the various sized herbivores (18). However, not every effort has been a success. At the moment, zebra populations are still low without a known cause (1). Additionally, GNP once tried to introduce nonnative cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) into the park’s grounds, but were unsuccessful (1).
On a social level, maintaining peace is tricky (9). Mozambique as a whole is an extremely poor country (12), and without the help of Carr’s foundation, restoring GNP would not be possible. Most people associate the park with Carr instead of the Mozambican government and thus refuse to visit GNP because of it (1). In addition, when Mount Gorongosa was added GNP, many perceived it as a way of controlling people and their livelihoods rather than an effort to stop deforestation and the resulting loss in water supplied to the park (21). In an effort to heal old wounds, Carr’s foundation and GNP have built health clinics, mobile health clinics, schools inside the actual park (Figure 4.), and created as many jobs as possible for Mozambicans (19). The park’s rangers are also made available for assistance for conflict between animals and people living in the buffer zone (15). Elephants are a problem for the farmers, and when one travels into a field of crops the rangers are called to shoo it back into the park (15). Dr. Joyce Poole is also working on safe and humane ways to deter the animals from the fields (15).
On a social level, maintaining peace is tricky (9). Mozambique as a whole is an extremely poor country (12), and without the help of Carr’s foundation, restoring GNP would not be possible. Most people associate the park with Carr instead of the Mozambican government and thus refuse to visit GNP because of it (1). In addition, when Mount Gorongosa was added GNP, many perceived it as a way of controlling people and their livelihoods rather than an effort to stop deforestation and the resulting loss in water supplied to the park (21). In an effort to heal old wounds, Carr’s foundation and GNP have built health clinics, mobile health clinics, schools inside the actual park (Figure 4.), and created as many jobs as possible for Mozambicans (19). The park’s rangers are also made available for assistance for conflict between animals and people living in the buffer zone (15). Elephants are a problem for the farmers, and when one travels into a field of crops the rangers are called to shoo it back into the park (15). Dr. Joyce Poole is also working on safe and humane ways to deter the animals from the fields (15).
As for management, there are three main categories; social, park, and science. For social management, GNP ensures that the 200,000 (15) people living in traditional communities in the buffer zone are as involved as they wish. For example, there are 50 employees that oversee tree replanting with help from the communities (15). Villagers tend to the young trees, and willingly carry them up the mountain on their backs to be planted (15). Park management consists of 180 rangers who patrol the park day and night for human and animal conflict, poachers, ecosystem monitoring, and protect tourists and researchers in the field (15). Lastly, GNP is very carefully monitored and managed through regular aerial surveys, daily field monitoring (17), water system monitoring, fire management, and invasive management through the use of photographs (8) and regular sampling. If there is
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Figure 3. A group of local children gathered for lessons in Gorongosa National park. From http://www.gorongosa.org/explore-park/gallery?page=1
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something irregular seen in the field, a team of scientists go out and investigate the problem. GNP is constantly changing its restoration efforts with climate change, and there is no certainty that any adaptive management technique will have the desired effect. Therefore, experiments and historical comparisons are constantly conducted to create the best possible plan (3). For example, an invasive shrub, Mimosa pigra, has been present since Tinley’s report in 1977 (20). To find the best solution, experimental plots were monitored with different treatments such as fire, herbicide, removal, and no treatment (2).
Future trajectories
The future of GNP is reasonably bright. Following the June 2018 25-year management/funding agreement between the Mozambican government and GRP, the park is shifting focus from large herbivorous mammals to reintroducing carnivores (4). The recent successful effort to reintroduce the previously extirpated and endangered wild dog (Lycaon pictus) has produced hope to bring in more large carnivores (4). However, there are many legislative obstacles to tackle before animals such as leopards can be brought back into the park (1), but there is some evidence that the animals may find their own way into the park. In addition, the researchers living in the park are constantly refining their adaptive management and monitoring strategies for future climate change and more/prolonged drought. Ongoing experiments show hopeful results for the resilience of certain plant types against water shortage (11). As for monitoring, techniques are continuously adjusted to ensure more accurate animal counts (16), and the Gorongosa Biodiversity Project are creating labs to research and genetically barcode the biodiversity in GNP (15). There is also opportunity to observe evolution, especially in regards to elephant tusks ((Figure 4.) 6).
However, there are factors that threaten GNP’s resilience. Should Carr’s foundation or the government abandon the project once the current agreement expires, the park may not be able to sustain itself purely from tourism. Should another war occur, the park may be abandoned or destroyed, and its animals hunted once again. Lastly, increasing amounts of large storms and environmental disasters that accompany climate change will no doubt set back the fragile progress GNP has made. Despite these threats however, the scientists and Mozambicans that live within the park’s boundaries are determined to restore the park to its former glory. GNP is not only remarkable for its history and resilience; it also provides an opportunity to learn about restoration within a changing climate.
However, there are factors that threaten GNP’s resilience. Should Carr’s foundation or the government abandon the project once the current agreement expires, the park may not be able to sustain itself purely from tourism. Should another war occur, the park may be abandoned or destroyed, and its animals hunted once again. Lastly, increasing amounts of large storms and environmental disasters that accompany climate change will no doubt set back the fragile progress GNP has made. Despite these threats however, the scientists and Mozambicans that live within the park’s boundaries are determined to restore the park to its former glory. GNP is not only remarkable for its history and resilience; it also provides an opportunity to learn about restoration within a changing climate.
Figure 4. A herd of elephants raising their trunks at dusk. From http://www.gorongosa.org/explore-park/gallery?page=1
References
(1) Angier, N. (2018). In Mozambique, a Living Laboratory for Nature's Renewal. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/23/science/gorongosa-animals-environment.html
(2) Beilfuss, R. (2017). Adaptive management of the invasive shrub Mimosa Pigra at Gorongosa National Park.
(3) Beilfuss, R., Steinbruch, F., & Owen, R. (2007). Long-term plan for hydrological research: adaptive management of water resources at Gorongosa National Park. Report Prepared for Gorongosa Research Center, Gorongosa National Park.
(4) Bouley, P. (2018). Landmark occasion as Wild Dogs return to Gorongosa National Park (Mozambique) after decades of absence. Retrieved from
https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2018/04/12/landmark-occasion-as-wild-dogs-return-to-gorongosa-national-park-mozambique-after-decades-of-absence/
(5) Correia, M., Timóteo, S., Rodríguez-Echeverría, S., Mazars‐Simon, A., & Heleno, R. (2017). Refaunation and the reinstatement of the seed‐dispersal function in Gorongosa National Park. Conservation biology, 31(1), 76-85.
(6) Elephants are evolving to be tuskless after decades of poaching pressure | CBC Radio. (2019). Retrieved from https://www.cbc.ca/radio/quirks/jan-19-2019-tuskless-elephants-room-temperature-superconductors-how-space-changed-a-man-and-more-1.4981750/elephants-are-evolving-to-be-tuskless-after-decades-of-poaching-pressure-1.4981764
(7) Gorongosa National Park. (2007). Restoration Project. Retrieved June 12, 2010, from Parque Nacional de Gorongosa Mozambique: http://www.gorongosa.net/en/page/restoration/restoration-project
(8) Herrero, H. V., Southworth, J., Bunting, E., & Child, B. (2017). Using repeat photography to observe vegetation change over time in Gorongosa National Park. African Studies Quarterly, 17(2), 65-83.
(9) Jentzsch, C. (2016). Here are 4 reasons why Mozambique isn't a post-war success story.Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/02/02/here-are-four-reasons-why-we-should-question-mozambiques-post-conflict-success-story-narrative/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.dd77dc7cff0a
(10) Knight, C. L. (2017). White Man's Game: Saving Animals, Rebuilding Eden, and Other Myths of Conservation in Africa.
(11) Massad, T. J., & Castigo, T. (2016). Investigating possible effects of climate change on tree recruitment: Responses of abundant species to water stress in Gorongosa National Park. South African Journal of Botany, 106, 96-100. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2016.06.002
(12) Mozambique. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.heritage.org/index/country/mozambique
(13) Mozambique profile - Timeline. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13890720
(14) Newitt, M. D. D. (1995). A history of Mozambique. Indiana University Press.
(15) Our Story. (2019). Retrieved from http://www.gorongosa.org/our-story
(16) Stalmans, M. (2012). Monitoring the recovery of wildlife in the Parque Nacional da Gorongosa through aerial surveys. Parque Nacional da Gorongosa, Sofala.
(17) Stalsmans, M., Bielfuss, R. (2007). LONG-TERM PLAN FOR GORONGOSA NATIONAL PARK VEGETATION MONITERING AT MULTIPLE SCALES.
(18) Stalmans, M., Peel, M., & Gonçalves, D. (2018). Aerial wildlife count of the Parque Nacional da Gorongosa, Mozambique, October 2018 (Rep.). Unpublished report to the Gorongosa Restoration Project. Retrieved from http://www.gorongosa.org/sites/default/files/research/gorongosaaerialwildlifecount2018_report_december2018.pdf
(19) Timeline. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.gorongosa.org/our-story/timeline
(20) Tinley, K. (1977). Framework on the Gorongosa Ecosystem. DSC Wildlife Management. University of Pretoria, South Africa.
(21) Walker, M. M. (2015). Producing Gorongosa: space and the environmental politics of degradation in Mozambique. Conservation and Society, 13(2), 129.
(22) Wilson, E. O. (2014). A window on eternity: A biologist’s walk through Gorongosa National Park. Simon and Schuster.
(2) Beilfuss, R. (2017). Adaptive management of the invasive shrub Mimosa Pigra at Gorongosa National Park.
(3) Beilfuss, R., Steinbruch, F., & Owen, R. (2007). Long-term plan for hydrological research: adaptive management of water resources at Gorongosa National Park. Report Prepared for Gorongosa Research Center, Gorongosa National Park.
(4) Bouley, P. (2018). Landmark occasion as Wild Dogs return to Gorongosa National Park (Mozambique) after decades of absence. Retrieved from
https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2018/04/12/landmark-occasion-as-wild-dogs-return-to-gorongosa-national-park-mozambique-after-decades-of-absence/
(5) Correia, M., Timóteo, S., Rodríguez-Echeverría, S., Mazars‐Simon, A., & Heleno, R. (2017). Refaunation and the reinstatement of the seed‐dispersal function in Gorongosa National Park. Conservation biology, 31(1), 76-85.
(6) Elephants are evolving to be tuskless after decades of poaching pressure | CBC Radio. (2019). Retrieved from https://www.cbc.ca/radio/quirks/jan-19-2019-tuskless-elephants-room-temperature-superconductors-how-space-changed-a-man-and-more-1.4981750/elephants-are-evolving-to-be-tuskless-after-decades-of-poaching-pressure-1.4981764
(7) Gorongosa National Park. (2007). Restoration Project. Retrieved June 12, 2010, from Parque Nacional de Gorongosa Mozambique: http://www.gorongosa.net/en/page/restoration/restoration-project
(8) Herrero, H. V., Southworth, J., Bunting, E., & Child, B. (2017). Using repeat photography to observe vegetation change over time in Gorongosa National Park. African Studies Quarterly, 17(2), 65-83.
(9) Jentzsch, C. (2016). Here are 4 reasons why Mozambique isn't a post-war success story.Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/02/02/here-are-four-reasons-why-we-should-question-mozambiques-post-conflict-success-story-narrative/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.dd77dc7cff0a
(10) Knight, C. L. (2017). White Man's Game: Saving Animals, Rebuilding Eden, and Other Myths of Conservation in Africa.
(11) Massad, T. J., & Castigo, T. (2016). Investigating possible effects of climate change on tree recruitment: Responses of abundant species to water stress in Gorongosa National Park. South African Journal of Botany, 106, 96-100. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2016.06.002
(12) Mozambique. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.heritage.org/index/country/mozambique
(13) Mozambique profile - Timeline. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13890720
(14) Newitt, M. D. D. (1995). A history of Mozambique. Indiana University Press.
(15) Our Story. (2019). Retrieved from http://www.gorongosa.org/our-story
(16) Stalmans, M. (2012). Monitoring the recovery of wildlife in the Parque Nacional da Gorongosa through aerial surveys. Parque Nacional da Gorongosa, Sofala.
(17) Stalsmans, M., Bielfuss, R. (2007). LONG-TERM PLAN FOR GORONGOSA NATIONAL PARK VEGETATION MONITERING AT MULTIPLE SCALES.
(18) Stalmans, M., Peel, M., & Gonçalves, D. (2018). Aerial wildlife count of the Parque Nacional da Gorongosa, Mozambique, October 2018 (Rep.). Unpublished report to the Gorongosa Restoration Project. Retrieved from http://www.gorongosa.org/sites/default/files/research/gorongosaaerialwildlifecount2018_report_december2018.pdf
(19) Timeline. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.gorongosa.org/our-story/timeline
(20) Tinley, K. (1977). Framework on the Gorongosa Ecosystem. DSC Wildlife Management. University of Pretoria, South Africa.
(21) Walker, M. M. (2015). Producing Gorongosa: space and the environmental politics of degradation in Mozambique. Conservation and Society, 13(2), 129.
(22) Wilson, E. O. (2014). A window on eternity: A biologist’s walk through Gorongosa National Park. Simon and Schuster.